“Beja language”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The name Beja, derived from the Arabic (بجا bijā), is most common in English-language literature. Native speakers use the term Bidhaawyeet (indefinite) or Tubdhaawi (definite).^[2]

Classification

Beja is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family, constituting the only member of the Northern Cushitic subgroup. As such, Beja contains a number of linguistic innovations that are unique to it, as is also the situation with the other subgroups of Cushitic (e.g. idiosyncratic features in Agaw or Central Cushitic). The characteristics of Beja that differ from those of other Cushitic languages are likewise generally acknowledged as normal branch variation.^[3] These unique features are also attributed to the fact that the Beja language, along with the Saho-Afar dialect cluster, are the most conservative forms of Cushitic speech.^[4]

History

Some linguists and paleographers believe that they have uncovered evidence of an earlier stage of Beja, referred to in different publications as "Old Bedauye" or "Old Beja." Helmut Satzinger has identified the names found on several third century CE ostraca (potsherds) from the Eastern Desert as likely Blemmye, and thus representing a form of Old Beja. He additionally identifies several epigraphic texts from the fifth and sixth centuries as representing a later form of the same language.^[10] Nubiologist Gerald Browne, Egyptologist Helmut Satzinger, and Cushiticist Klaus Wedekind believe that an ostracon discovered in a monastery in Saqqarah also represents the Old Beja language. Browne and Wedekind have identified the text as a translation of Psalm 30.^[11]^[12]

Phonology

Nasals other than /m/ and /n/ are positional variants of /n/. The consonants /χ/ and /ɣ/ only appear in Arabic loanwords in some speakers' speech; in others', they are replaced by /k/ or /h/ and /g/.^[14]

Beja has the five vowels /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, and /u/. /e/ and /o/ only appear long, while /a/, /i/, and /u/ have long and short variants.^[15]

Orthography

Both Roman and Arabic script have been used to write Beja.^[17]^[18] The Roman orthography below is that used by the Eritrean government and has been used in a literacy program by Red Sea University in Port Sudan. The Arabic orthography below was that used by the now defunct Website Sakanab. Multiple Arabic writing systems have been used to represent Beja, but none have gained wide support.^[19]

In the Roman orthography, the vowels are written with the letters corresponding to the IPA symbols (i.e., 'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u'). Long vowels are written with doubled signs. As /e/ and /o/ cannot be short vowels, they only appear as 'ee' and 'oo', respectively.

The single 'e' sign, however, does have a use: To distinguish between /ɖ/ and /dh/, 'dh' is used for the former and 'deh' for the latter. Similarly, 'keh' is /kh/, 'teh' is /th/, 'seh' is /sh/. Single 'o' is not used.

In the Arabic orthography, short vowels are written with the same diacritics used in Arabic: fatḥah for /a/ (ﹶ), kasrah for /i/ (ﹺ), ḍammah for /u/ ( ُ). Alif (ا) is used as the seat for these diacritics at the beginning of a word. Long /aː/ is written with alif (ا) preceded by fatḥah, or alif maddah (آ) when word-initial. Long /eː/ is written with a modified Kurdish yā' ێ. Long /iː/ is written with yā' ي preceded by kasrah. Long /oː/ is written with a modified Kurdish wāw ۆ. Long /uː/ is written with wāw و preceded by ḍammah.

Pitch accent is not marked in either orthography. In Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa (2006 and 2008), stressed syllables are indicated in boldface.

In addition to these two systems and several academic systems of transcribing Beja texts, it is possible that Beja was at least occasionally written in the Greek alphabet-based Coptic script during the Middle Ages.^[21]

Grammar

Nouns, Articles, and Adjectives

Beja nouns and adjectives have two genders: masculine and feminine, two numbers: singular and plural, two cases: nominative and oblique, and may be definite, indefinite, or in construct state.^[22] Gender, case, and definiteness are not marked on the noun itself, but on clitics and affixes. Singular-plural pairs in Beja are unpredictable.

Plural Forms

A small number of nouns do not distinguish between singular and plural forms. Some nouns are always plural. A few nouns have suppletive plurals.^[24]

Case and Definiteness

A noun may be prefixed by a clitic definite article, or have an indefinite suffix. Definite articles indicate gender, number, and case. The indefinite suffix marks gender only, and does not appear in the nominative case.^[25] For feminine common nouns, the indefinite suffix is -t; for masculine nouns and feminine proper nouns, -b. The indefinite suffixes only appear after vowels. The definite article is proclitic. It has the following forms with masculine monosyllabic nouns that do not begin with [h] or [']:

The feminine definite articles begin with [t] but are otherwise identical (tuu-, too-, taa-, tee-). With nouns longer than one syllable and with nouns that begin with [h] or ['], reduced forms of the definite article are used which do not distinguish between cases, but maintain gender distinctions. In some dialects (e.g. that described by Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa for Port Sudan) the reduced forms maintain number distinctions; in others (e.g. that described by Vanhove and Roper for Sinkat) they do not.

Possession

Possessive relationships are shown through a genitive suffix -ii (singular possessed) or -ee (plural possessed) which attaches to the possessing noun. If the possessing noun is feminine, the genitive marker will begin with [t]; if the possessed is feminine, the suffix will end with [t]. When the suffix does not end with the feminine marker [t], it reduces to -(t)i, whether singular or plural. Because this suffix adds a syllable to the noun, full forms of articles cannot be used; thus, the article on the noun itself does not indicate case. However, agreeing adjectives will be marked for oblique case. No article or indefinite suffix may be applied to the possessed noun. The possessed noun follows the possessor. Examples:

(The noun tak 'man' has the suppletive plural da 'men'; raaw 'friend' has the shortened plural raw 'friends'.)

Adjectives

Adjectives follow the nominal heads of noun phrases. They agree in gender, number, case, and definiteness, and carry case and definiteness markers of the same form as nouns.

Copula

Clauses may be composed of two noun phrases or a noun phrase and a predicative adjective followed by a copular clitic. The copula agrees in person, gender, and number with the copula complement (the second term), but the first- and third-person forms are identical. The copular subject will be in the nominative case, the copular complement in the oblique. Oblique -b become -w before -wa. Copular complements that end in a vowel will employ an epenthetic y between the final vowel and any vowel-initial copular clitic.

Verbs

Beja verbs have two different types, first noted by Almkvist: "strong verbs", which conjugate with both prefixes and suffixes and have several principal parts; and "weak verbs", which conjugate with suffixes only and which have a fixed root. Verbs conjugate for a number of tense, aspect, modality, and polarity variations, which have been given different names by different linguists:

(Roper analyzes additional subjunctive forms where Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, and Vanhove see a conditional particle.)

Each of the above forms has a corresponding negative. (Vanhove refers to the imperative negative as the "prohibitive".) The past continuous and past share a past negative. Negative forms are not derived from corresponding positive forms, but are independent conjugations.

Every verb has a corresponding deverbal noun, which Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa refer to as a "noun of action", Vanhove calls an "action noun", and Roper a "nomen actionis". Numerous serial verb constructions exist which connote different aspectual and potential meanings.^[29]^[30]^[31]

Imperative

The third person masculine singular positive imperative is the citation form of the verb. Weak verbs have a long final suffix -aa while strong verbs have a short final suffix -a. For both weak and strong verbs, the negative imperative is formed by an identical set of prefixes baa- (for masculine singular and common plural) and bii- (for feminine singular). Strong verbs use a negative imperative root which has a lengthened vowel.^[32]

Deverbal and Dependent Forms

Deverbal Noun

Every Beja verb has a corresponding deverbal noun (Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa: "noun of action"; Vanhove: "action noun"; Roper: "nomen actionis"). For weak verbs, the deverbal noun is formed by a suffix -ti attached to the imperative root (see above). For strong verbs, deverbal nouns are not entirely predictable.

There are patterns in strong verb deverbal nouns related to the structure of the citation form of the verb. However, these are not consistent.^[33]

Deverbal Adjective

A further derived form is a suffix -aa attached to the citation root, and then followed by -b for masculine nouns and -t for feminine. Examples:

This form may be used as an adjective, but it is also employed in the construction of multiple conjugated negative forms. Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa analyse this form as a participle.^[34] Martine Vanhove anaylses it as a manner converb -a.^[35]

Tense-Conjugated Forms

Past Continuous/Aorist

The past continuous stem for strong verbs is not derivable from any other verb stem. The negative of the past continuous is identical to that of the past: There is only one past tense negative form. For both weak and strong verbs, the past negative is formed through a deverbal participial or converbal form (see above) followed by the present negative of the irregular verb aka "to be".^[36]

Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa describe the past continuous as being used for "habitual, repeated actions of the (more distant) past."^[37] It is the verb conjugation used for counterfactual conditionals, which leads to Roper's identifying this tense as the "conditional". It is also frequently used in narratives.^[38]

Past/Perfective

The past or perfective stem for strong verbs is identical to the citation form (imperative) stem, with predictable phonetic modifications.^[39] The negative is identical to that of the past continuous/aorist (above).

Present/Imperfective

The present or imperfective has two stems for positive strong verbs, while the negative strong stem is identical to that used for the imperative (and thus also for past/perfective verbs).^[40] Weak negative verbs add the prefix ka- to positive past/perfective forms.

Future

The strong future stem is described differently by Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa and by Vanhove. Both agree that it is a fixed stem followed by a present/imperfective conjugated form of the verb diya "to say." Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa's strong stem is similar to the past continuous/aorist stem (next section), and identical for all numbers, genders, and persons, except the first person plural, which has a prefixed n-. For Vanhove, there are distinct singular and plural stems which are identical to the past continuous/aorist first person singular and plural, respectively.^[41] Similarly, for weak verbs, Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa have a future stem ending in -i with a first person plural -ni, followed by a present tense/imperfective conjugation of diya. Vanhove sees the -i as a singular future, and the -ni as a general plural. For negative verbs, the negative present/imperfective of diya is used as the conjugated auxiliary.

(NB: Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa see verbs of the form CiCiC as having identical past continuous [aorist] and future stems. Some verbs of other forms have different stems, which would lead to a greater divergence between the forms described by them and those described by Vanhove.) E.M. Roper, describing the same dialect as Vanhove, identifies the stem employed as being identical to the past continuous/aorist (for him, "conditional"—see above), just as Vanhove does. However, he understands the form with n- as being used only with the first person plural, as Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa do.^[42]

Intentional/Desiderative

In addition to the future, Bidhaawyeet has a similar form expressing desire to undertake an act or intention to do so. The citation root takes a suffix -a for all persons, genders, and numbers, and is followed by a present tense/imperfective conjugated form of the verb diya "to say", as the future is.^[43]

Jussive, Optative, Potential

There is distinct disagreement between the major grammars of the past century on the modal conjugation or conjugations referred to as "jussive," "optative," and "potential."

Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa describe a "jussive" with the following paradigm. For strong verbs, the first person is based on the past/perfective stem, and the persons are based on the future stem; no negative jussive is given:

They give various examples of the jussive with translations into English, in order to give a sense of the meaning:

Vanhove identifies a complex "potential" form composed of a nominalizing suffix -at followed by a present/imperfective reduced conjugation of the verb m'a 'come' (eeya in the non-reduced present/imperfective).

Vanhove describes the potential as expressing "epistemic modalities of inference or near-certainty."^[45] Examples below, with the potential verbs in bold:

Additionally, she recognizes an optative with positive and negative polarity. The positive optative is formed from a prefix baa- to the past continuous/aorist. The negative construction is more complex. In some dialects, the final -aay of most forms of the weak negative is a short -ay:

Vanhove gives no explanation for the use of the optative positive. The optative negative is used in conditional clauses with meanings of incapacity and necessity:

Lexicon

Through lexicostatistical analysis, David Cohen (1988) observed that Beja shared a basic vocabulary of around 20% with the East Cushitic Afar and Somali languages and the Central Cushitic Agaw languages, which are among its most geographically near Afroasiatic languages. This was analogous to the percentage of common lexical terms that was calculated for certain other Cushitic languages, such as Afar and Oromo. Václav Blažek (1997) conducted a more comprehensive glottochronological examination of languages and data. He identified a markedly close ratio of 40% cognates between Beja and Proto-East Cushitic as well as a cognate percentage of approximately 20% between Beja and Central Cushitic, similar to that found by Cohen.

A fairly large portion of Beja vocabulary is borrowed from Arabic. In Eritrea and Sudan, some terms are instead Tigre loanwords.^[48] Andrzej Zaborski has noted close parallels between Beja and Egyptian vocabulary.^[49]

The only independent Beja dictionary yet printed is Leo Reinisch's 1895 Wörterbuch der Beḍauye-Sprache. An extensive vocabulary forms an appendix to E.M. Roper's 1928 Tu Beḍawiɛ: An Elementary Handbook for the use of Sudan Government Officials, and this has formed the basis for much recent comparative Cushitic work. Klaus and Charlotte Wedekind and Abuzeinab Musa's 2007 A Learner's Grammar of Beja (East Sudan) comes with a CD which contains a roughly 7,000-word lexicon, composed mostly of one-word glosses. Klaus Wedekind, Abuzeinab Muhammed, Feki Mahamed, and Mohamed Talib were working on a Beja-Arabic-English dictionary, but publication appears to have been stalled by Wedekind's death.^[50] Martine Vanhove announced a forthcoming Beja-Arabic-English-French dictionary in 2006. It has not yet been published.^[51] The Beja scholar Muhammed Adarob Ohaj produced a Beja-Arabic dictionary as his masters thesis in 1972. It has not yet been published.^[52]

Literature

Beja has an extensive oral literary tradition, including multiple poetic genres. A well-known epic is the story of the hero Mhamuud Oofaash, portions of which have appeared in various publications by Klaus Wedekind. An edition appears in Mahmud Mohammed Ahmed's Oomraay, published in Asmara.^[53] In the 1960s and '70s, the Beja intellectual Muhammed Adarob Ohaj collected oral recordings of poetic and narrative material which are in the University of Khartoum Institute of African and Asian Studies Sound Archives. Didier Morin and Mohamed-Tahir Hamid Ahmed have used these, in addition to their own collections, for multiple academic publications in French on Beja poetics.^[54] Red Sea University and the NGO Uhaashoon worked with oral story-tellers to produce a collection of 41 short readers and a longer collection of three short stories in Beja between 2010 and 2013.^[55]

See also

Notes

1. ^{{harvnb|Gordon|2005}}
2. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 10; Vanhove, 6. As no standardized writing system existed for Beja prior to the late 20th century, earlier writers used various variants of these names to refer to the language. In his 1881 grammar, Herman Almkvist calls the language "Tū-Beḍāwie". ({{cite book|last1=Almkvist|first1=Herman|title=Die Bischari-Sprache Tū-Beḍāwie in Nordost-Afrika|date=1881|publisher=Akademisch Buchdruckerei|location=Upsala}}) In 1893, Leo Reinisch published a grammar referring to the language as "Beḍauye". ({{cite book|last1=Reinisch|first1=Leo|title=Die Beḍauye-Sprache in Nordost-Afrika|date=1893|publisher=Kaiserlich Akademie der Wissenschaften|location=Wien}}) In 1928, E.M. Roper published a grammar referring to the language as "Tu Beɖawiɛ". ({{cite book|last1=Roper|first1=E.M.|title=Tu Beḍawiɛ: An Elementary Handbook for the Use of Sudan Government Officials|date=1928|publisher=Stephen Austin and Sons, Ltd.|location=Hertford}}) Variants of these names have continued to appear in various sources. Since 1950, three professional linguists have written grammars of Beja, all of which refer to the language by the name "Beja": Richard Hudson's 1964 doctoral thesis "A Grammatical Study of Beja"; Klaus and Charlotte Wedekind and Abuzeinab Musa's 2007 A Learner's Grammar of Beja (East Sudan); and Martine Vanhove's 2014 "Beja grammatical sketch". Hudson gives the indigenous name of the language as tibďaːwyě (definite) or biďaːwyéːt (construct). (p. 7) Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa give these same names as Tu-Bdhaawi or Bidhaawyeet. (p. 10) Vanhove provides only the latter form, as beɖawije=t. (p. 4) The forms given by Wedekind, Wedekind, are presented in the Eritrean government orthography for Beja, established in 2000. ({{cite congress |title=An Update on Beja: From Phonology to Text Studies |conference=7. internationalen Semitohamitistenkongresses |book-title=Akten des 7. internationalen Semitohamitistenkongresses Berlin 2004 |editor=Rainer Voigt |year=2004 |pages=165–184}}) The same orthography was used for Beja literacy classes held by Red Sea University and the NGO Uhaashoon in Port Sudan from 2010 to 2013. ({{cite web|last1=Swackhamer|first1=Jeanette|title=Dabaab|url=http://bejaliteracy.com/|website=Bidhaawyeetiit Kitaabaati Kitab|accessdate=11 November 2017}})
3. ^{{cite book|last1=Zaborski|first1=Andrzej|title=Fucus - "Remarks on the Verb in Beja"|date=1988|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-9027235527|page=491|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=F5G74rBLJE4C&pg=PA491|accessdate=30 September 2017}}
4. ^{{cite book|authors=Allan R. Bomhard, John C. Kerns|title=The Nostratic Macrofamily: A Study in Distant Linguistic Relationship|date=1994|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3110139006|page=24|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=_r40wG-RUO0C&pg=PA24#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=26 September 2017}}
5. ^¹²³{{cite web|last1=Vanhove|first1=Martine|title=North-Cushitic|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01485896/document|publisher=LLACAN, CNRS-INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité|accessdate=12 November 2017}}
6. ^{{cite journal|last1=Hetzron |first1=Robert| date=1980 |title=The limits of Cushitic |journal=Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika |volume=2 |pages=7–126 }}
7. ^{{cite book|last1=Ekkehard Wolff, Hilke Meyer-Bahlburg|title=Studies in Chadic and Afroasiatic linguistics: papers from the International Colloquium on the Chadic Language Family and the Symposium on Chadic within Afroasiatic, at the University of Hamburg, September 14-18, 1981|date=1983|publisher=H. Buske|isbn=978-3871186073|page=23|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=qpdkAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=10 November 2017}}
8. ^{{cite conference |title=Remarks on the Genetic Classification and Relative Chronology of the Cushitic Languages |conference=Third International Hamito-Semitic Congress |book-title=Current Progress in Afro-Asiatic Linguistics |last=Zaborski |first=Andrzej |year=1984 |editor=James Bynon |pages=127–135}}
9. ^{{cite book |last=Morin |first=Didier |editor-last=Zaborski |editor-first=Andrzej |title=New Data and New Methods in Afroasiatic Linguistics. Robert Hetzron in memoriam |publisher=Otto Harassowitz |date=2001 |pages=117–124 |chapter=Bridging the gap between Northern and Eastern Cushitic}}
10. ^{{cite book |last1=Satzinger |first1=Helmut |title=Inside and Out. Interactions between Rome and the Peoples on the Arabian and Egyptian Frontiers in Late Antiquity |publisher=LAHR |isbn=978- 90-429-3124-4 |pages=199–212 |chapter=The Barbarian Names on the Ostraca from the Eastern Desert (3rd Century CE)|year=2014 }}
11. ^{{cite journal |last1=Wedekind |first1=Klaus |title=More on the Ostracon of Browne's Textus Blemmyicus |journal=Annali |date=2010 |volume=70 |pages=73–81 |issn=0393-3180}}
12. ^Wedekind identifies this psalm as number 29, but makes it clear that he is referring to the Septuagint. Different traditions number the psalms differently and the psalm in question is more commonly numbered 30 today, as here.
13. ^{{cite book|last1=Wedekind|first1=Klaus|last2=Wedekind|first2=Charlotte|last3=Musa|first3=Abuzeinab|title=Beja Pedagogical Grammar|date=2004–2005|location=Aswan and Asmara|url=https://www.afrikanistik-aegyptologie-online.de/archiv/2008/1283/|at=§26}}
14. ^{{cite book|last1=Wedekind|first1=Klaus|last2=Wedekind|first2=Charlotte|last3=Musa|first3=Abuzeinab|title=Beja Pedagogical Grammar|date=2004–2005|location=Aswan and Asmara|url=https://www.afrikanistik-aegyptologie-online.de/archiv/2008/1283/beja_pedagogical_grammar_final_links_numbered.pdf|at=§§31–32}}
15. ^{{cite book|last1=Wedekind|first1=Klaus|last2=Wedekind|first2=Charlotte|last3=Musa|first3=Abuzeinab|title=Beja Pedagogical Grammar|date=2004–2005|location=Aswan and Asmara|url=https://www.afrikanistik-aegyptologie-online.de/archiv/2008/1283/beja_pedagogical_grammar_final_links_numbered.pdf|at=§§26, 30}}
16. ^{{cite book|last1=Wedekind|first1=Klaus|last2=Wedekind|first2=Charlotte|last3=Musa|first3=Abuzeinab|title=Beja Pedagogical Grammar|date=2004–2005|location=Aswan and Asmara|url=https://www.afrikanistik-aegyptologie-online.de/archiv/2008/1283/beja_pedagogical_grammar_final_links_numbered.pdf|at=§27}}
17. ^{{cite book|last1=Wedekind|first1=Klaus|last2=Wedekind|first2=Charlotte|last3=Musa|first3=Abuzeinab|title=Beja Pedagogical Grammar|date=2004–2005|location=Aswan and Asmara|url=https://www.afrikanistik-aegyptologie-online.de/archiv/2008/1283/beja_pedagogical_grammar_final_links_numbered.pdf|at=§25}}
18. ^{{cite web|title=Bedawiyet|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/bej/|publisher=Ethnologue|accessdate=12 November 2017}}
19. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 11
20. ^{{cite book|last1=Wedekind|first1=Klaus|last2=Wedekind|first2=Charlotte|last3=Musa|first3=Abuzeinab|title=Beja Pedagogical Grammar|date=2004–2005|location=Aswan and Asmara|url=https://www.afrikanistik-aegyptologie-online.de/archiv/2008/1283/beja_pedagogical_grammar_final_links_numbered.pdf|at=§26}}
21. ^{{cite book|last1=Browne|first1=Gerald|title=Textus blemmyicus in aetatis christianae|date=2003|publisher=Stipes Publish L.L.C.|location=Champaign, Illinois|isbn=978-1-58874-275-9}}
22. ^{{cite book|last1=Appleyard|first1=David|editor1-last=Kaye|editor1-first=Alan S.|title=Morphologies of Asia and Africa|publisher=Eisenbrauns|location=Winona Lake, Ind.|isbn=978-1-57506-109-2|pages=447–479|chapter=Beja Morphology|year=2007}}
23. ^Vanhove 2014, §3.1.5
24. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 43
25. ^{{cite book|last1=Roper|first1=E.M.|title=Tu Beḍawiɛ: An Elementary Handbook for the use of Sudan Government Officials|date=1928|publisher=Stephen Austin and Sons, Ltd.|location=Hertford|at=§43}}
26. ^Roper, 16
27. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 45; Vanhove, 9
28. ^Roper, 19
29. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 150–158
30. ^Vanhove 2014, 30–34
31. ^Roper, 84–87
32. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 97–100; Vanhove 2014, 23–24
33. ^Vanhove 2014, 34–35; Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 159–161
34. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 56–57
35. ^Vanhove 2014, 29–30
36. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 101
37. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 155
38. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 183; Vanhove 2014, 22
39. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 100
40. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 100
41. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 101; Vanhove 2014, 31
42. ^Roper, 60
43. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 154–155; Vanhove 2014, 31
44. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 162–166
45. ^Vanhove 2014, 32
46. ^Vanhove 2014, 23–24
47. ^{{cite book|last1=Vanhove|first1=Martine|editor1-last=Busetto|editor1-first=Luca|editor2-last=Sottile|editor2-first=Roberto|editor3-last=Tonelli|editor3-first=Livia|editor4-last=Tosco|editor4-first=Mauro|title=He bitaney lagge. Dedicato a / Dedicated to Marcello Lamberti. Saggi di Linguistica e Africanistica. Essays in Linguistics and African Studies|date=2011|pages=231–246|chapter=Towards a semantic map of the Optative in Beja (North-Cushitic)}}
48. ^Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, 17
49. ^Zaborski 1989
50. ^{{cite web|last1=Wedekind|first1=Klaus|title=Forthcoming - Klaus Wedekind, with Abuzeinab Musa, Feki Mahamed, Mohamed Talib, et. al., "Trilingual dictionary of Beja" [arranged by the provenience of entries: S. Egypt, E. Sudan, N. Eritrea]|url=Feki Mahamed, Mohamed Talib|website=Academia.edu|accessdate=11 November 2017}}
51. ^Vanhove 2006, 4
52. ^{{cite journal|last1=Hamid Ahmed|first1=Mohamed-Tahir|title=L'Espace et la poésie bedja (Soudan)|journal=Journal des Africanistes|date=2010|volume=79|issue=2|pages=171–187|url=http://africanistes.revues.org/|accessdate=11 November 2017}}
53. ^{{cite book|last1=Mohammed Ahmed|first1=Mahmud|title=Oomraay|date=2004|publisher=Semhar Press|location=Asmara}}
54. ^{{cite journal|last1=Hamid Ahmed|first1=Mohamed-Tahir|title=L'Espace et la poésie bedja (Soudan)|journal=Journal des Africanistes|date=2010|volume=79|issue=2|pages=171–187|url=http://africanistes.revues.org/|accessdate=11 November 2017}}
55. ^{{cite web|last1=Swackhamer|first1=Jeanette|title=Ooktaab Oowin|url=http://bejaliteracy.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9--ooktaab-oowin.html|website=Bidhaawyeetiit Kitaabaati Kitab|accessdate=11 November 2017}}

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