1. Biography
     Entry into politics    Rise to prominence    Demise    Death  

2. Legacy

3. Notes

4. Citations

5. References

Jason Sendwe (1917 – 19 June 1964) was a Congolese politician and a leader of the Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga (BALUBAKAT) party. He served as Second Deputy Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (then Republic of the Congo) from August 1961 until December 1962, and as President of the Province of North Katanga from July 1963 until his death.

Sendwe was born in 1917 in Mwanya, Kabongo Territory, Belgian Congo to a Baluba family. He was educated in Methodist schools and medical institutions. Unable to become a doctor due to restrictions on advancement for Africans in the colony, he found work as a minister, teacher, and nurse. Sendwe was involved in several cultural organisations, and in 1957 he founded the BALUBAKAT to fight for the interests of the Baluba. He espoused nationalism and believed that the Congo should remain a united country after the end of Belgian rule. In May 1960 he was elected to the newly constituted Chamber of Deputies shortly before the country's independence. Sendwe wished to obtain control over the government of Katanga Province, but lost a power struggle to his rival, Moïse Tshombe, and the Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT) party. Regardless, Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba nominated him for the office of State Commissioner for Katanga.

In early July 1960 Tshombe announced the secession of an independent State of Katanga. Sendwe opposed the breakaway state and rejected Tshombe's entreaties for him to join the rebel government, rupturing relations between the two men. Invested with the responsibilities of State Commissioner by the Senate, Sendwe unsuccessfully attempted to restore central government control over Katanga. After a period of turmoil he was appointed Deputy Prime Minister in August 1961 with the hope that he could use his political influence to win the central government support in Katanga. Four months later he was made Commissioner-General Extraordinaire for the province, nominally giving him complete authority over the area.

Sendwe's political prospects were severely damaged in December 1962 when the Senate dismissed him from the deputy premiership for his involvement in an altercation in which a senator was injured. In early 1963, he increasingly focused his activities in Katanga, as the province acceded to central authority and Tshombe fled into exile. The territory was divided into new political units against Sendwe's wishes. Despite his dissatisfaction, he assumed office as President of North Katanga in July. In January 1964 he lost his position as president of BALUBAKAT. The provincial assembly unsuccessfully attempted to dismiss him, and in June Simba rebels overthrew his government. On 19 June they killed him, though it is unclear who held ultimate responsibility for his death. Sendwe's demise greatly demoralised the Baluba, and his reputation thereafter drifted into obscurity.

Biography

Jason Sendwe was born in 1917 in Mwanya, Kabongo Territory, Belgian Congo to a Baluba family.{{sfn|CRISP|1961|loc=paragraph 83}}{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=241}} He was a childhood friend of Moïse Tshombe.{{sfn|Gerard|Kuklick|2015|p=131}} He received six years of primary schooling from Methodists in Kabongo and four years of secondary education at the Kanene Methodist Mission in Kamina.{{sfn|CRISP|1961|loc=paragraph 83}} For five years he took nursing courses in Stanleyville and at the École officielle pour Infirmiers à Élisabethville.{{sfn|Gérard-Libois|1966|p=301}} He completed his studies at the École des Assistants Indigènes de Léopoldville, graduating as a nurse.{{sfn|CRISP|1961|loc=paragraph 83}} Sendwe's aspirations to become a doctor were curtailed by the lack of educational opportunity under colonial rule,{{sfn|Legum|1961|p=101}} but he worked as a minister and a teacher at the Kanene Methodist Mission. In 1942 he entered the service of the colonial administration as a clerk. He later became a nurse and then a medical assistant, working in Élisabethville, Mutshatsha, Kongolo and Kabongo.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=241}} He was a founding member and treasurer of the Amitiés Belgo-Congolaises cultural organisation, treasurer of the Académie des Beaux-Arts, councilor of the Association Saint-Luc, councilor of the Foyer social Léopold III, and served on the council of the Church of Christ in the Congo.{{sfn|Chomé|1966|p=75}}{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2018|p=241}} He was married and had eight children.{{sfn|Merriam|1961|p=138}}

Entry into politics

In 1957 Sendwe founded and became president of the Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga (BALUBAKAT) to encourage unity among the Baluba of the Katanga Province.{{sfn|O'Ballance|1999|p=7}} He was able amass much of their support through his dynamic leadership style and frequent interactions with the population.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2018|p=240}} Three tenants underlined his political philosophy:{{sfn|Sendwe, le Heros Indesirable|1989|p=50}}

1. Protection of the Baluba
2. Achievement of Congolese independence
3. Primacy of conciliation in settling disputes.

In 1958 Sendwe attended the Brussels Expo, working as a medical assistant at the African Personnel Reception Center.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2018|p=241}} Afterwards he joined the short-lived Mouvement pour le Progres National Congolais, a party formed by attendees of the exposition.{{sfn|Lemarchand|1964|p=281}} On 5 February 1959 Sendwe brought the BALUBAKAT into Tshombe's Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT) party on the condition that it be able to maintain a significant amount of autonomy.{{sfn|Lemarchand|1964|p=241}} He initially shared the xenophobic stances of CONAKAT, but soon grew concerned that its hostility toward immigrants would extend to incoming Baluba. Sendwe was also worried by Tshombe's close connections to the Belgians{{sfn|Gerard|Kuklick|2015|p=132}} and was repulsed by the prominence of several of his political rivals within the party's ranks.{{sfn|Lemarchand|1964|p=241}} The BALUBAKAT began to form two trends, one sympathetic to CONAKAT, and the other supportive of the Mouvement National Congolais. The latter was led by Sendwe. In October he sent a letter to Baudouin, King of the Belgians, urging him to oppose efforts at "dismantling the immense country" created by his predecessors.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2018|p=240}} In late 1959 Sendwe withdrew BALUBAKAT from CONAKAT.{{sfn|Lemarchand|1964|p=241}} He subsequently negotiated the formation of a "Cartel Katangais" between BALUBAKAT and two other organisations.{{sfn|Lemarchand|1964|p=299}}{{sfn|Kanza|1994|p=134}} Sendwe met with Baudouin on 25 December.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2018|p=240}} In January 1960 he went to Brussels to participate in the Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference.{{sfn|Hoskyns|1965|p=26}} In May he traveled to the United States at the invitation of the American government.{{sfn|CRISP|1961|loc=paragraph 83}}

Rise to prominence

In the national elections before the Republic of the Congo's independence on 30 June 1960 Sendwe earned a seat in the Chamber of Deputies, elected with 20,282 votes from the Élisabethville constituency.{{sfn|CRISP|1961|loc=paragraph 83}} CONAKAT held won a slight majority of the seats in the Katanga Provincial Assembly, and could thus determine the composition of the provincial government. Sendwe ordered the BALUBAKAT deputies to abstain from sitting, thus when the assembly convened on 5 June it did not have a quorum to vote on the provincial portfolios.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2018|p=325}} CONAKAT offered Sendwe the office of Katanga Vice-President and the responsibility of several ministries, but he refused to negotiate.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2018|p=241}} On 15 June the Belgian Parliament modified the Congo's provisional constitution to reduce the number of deputies necessary for a quorum to vote on a government. Cartel Katangais representatives subsequently declared that they would wait for the Congolese central government's decision after independence.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2018|p=326}} On 23 June the cartel declared its ideal government, with Sendwe as Provincial President.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2018|pp=326–327}} In the meantime CONAKAT voted in its own government. Despite this, Sendwe was nominated by Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba of the MNC to be the State Commissioner for Katanga.{{sfn|Gerard|Kuklick|2015|p=132}}{{efn|A state commissioner was appointed by the head of state with the consent of the Senate to represent the central government in each province. Their main duties were, according to the constitution, to "administer state services" and "assure coordination of provincial and central institutions."{{sfn|Lemarchand|1964|p=216}}}} The President of the Katanga Provincial Assembly, Charles Mutaka, threatened secession if the appointment were confirmed.{{sfn|Gérard-Libois|1966|p=85}} In early July Tshombe went forward with the secession of the province but actively sought Sendwe's support, hoping to build a coalition that would bring the latter in as vice-president of an independent Katanga. Sendwe rejected the idea, rupturing relations between them.{{sfn|Gerard|Kuklick|2015|p=132}} Tshombe thereafter "outlawed" him from Katanga.{{sfn|Horizon|1962|p=9}} The Senate initially rejected all of Lumumba's nominees for state commissioner. However, on 22 July the body, in a move meant to convey its wish that central government authority be reestablished in Katanga, voted to confirm Sendwe's appointment, 42 to 4 with 7 abstentions.{{sfn|Bonyeka|1992|p=135}} Invested with the responsibilities of his office, Sendwe vainly attempted restore central control over the province.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=212}}

Sendwe was slated to lead part of the army into northern Katanga to reestablish the central government's authority, but this plan dissolved following Lumumba's dismissal by President Joseph Kasa-Vubu in September.{{sfn|Gerard|Kuklick|2015|p=132}} The dismissal caused a substantial amount of turmoil and Sendwe was appointed by the Chamber to serve on a reconciliation commission to achieve an understanding between Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba; he acted as its rapporteur.{{sfn|Hoskyns|1965|p=219}} Meanwhile, northern Katangese rejected Tshombe's leadership and the secession in favor of Sendwe, who they saw as a proponent of nationalism and a protector of the Baluba. Sendwe also enjoyed a substantial amount of popularity around Élisabethville, posing a significant political threat to Tshombe. However, many politicians in the central government saw him as having been too close with the deposed prime minister.{{sfn|Gerard|Kuklick|2015|p=132}} On 19 October, three days after Tshombe concluded a deal with Colonel Joseph-Désiré Mobutu to "neutralise" Lumumba, Sendwe was incarcerated by central government officials. The United Nations (UN) quickly secured his release on the basis of parliamentary immunity. With its sponsorship, Sendwe went on a tour of northern Katanga to promote peace, receiving an ecstatic welcome from the Baluba. Tshombe denounced him as a "public danger".{{sfn|Gerard|Kuklick|2015|p=133}} While the central government was negotiating the transfer of Lumumba to Katanga (where he would be executed upon arrival), Tshombe repeatedly asked to receive Sendwe. Though initially agreeing to the plan, central government officials later backed away from their commitment.{{sfn|Gerard|Kuklick|2015|p=197}}

In December Sendwe attended a Francophone-African conference in Brazzaville where foreign diplomats attempted to provide mediation between the Congolese factions.{{sfn|Hoskyns|1965|p=275}} In early 1961 he appealed to the UN to go on another pacification tour of northern Katanga, receiving their approval on 8 January. However, the next day forces of the rival Free Republic of the Congo invaded the area and BALUBAKAT began to organise its own administration of the region as the "Province of Lualaba".{{sfn|Gerard|Kuklick|2015|p=187}} Sendwe's trip did not occur until July.{{sfn|Colvin|1968|p=66}} Meanwhile, he traveled to Belgium in February and in May he participated in the Conference of Coquilhatville.{{sfn|CRISP|1961|loc=paragraph 83}} On 2 August a new government was formed under Cyrille Adoula, and Sendwe was appointed Second Deputy Prime Minister.{{sfn|Hoskyns|1965|p=377}} He was chosen because he was believed to be the only figure with enough clout in Katanga to challenge Tshombe.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=218}} Other nationalists in Parliament wanted him to assume the premiership, but he preferred to focus his political energies on Katanga instead of the national level, where he had less support.{{sfn|Sendwe, le Heros Indesirable|1989|p=72}} On 28 November a new état d’exception (state of emergency) was proclaimed by the central government in Katanga and Sendwe was appointed Commissioner-General Extraordinaire for the province, nominally giving him absolute authority over the area.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=218}} In July 1962 he came into conflict in the pursuance of his responsibilities with fellow BALUBAKAT member Antoine Omari, who had been tasked by the government with reestablishing local administration.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=221}}

Demise

By the end of 1962 Sendwe was at the peak of his political aspirations, being able to exert great power and influence over the new province of North Katanga.{{sfn|Willame|1972|p=50}} However at 22:00 on 23 December{{sfn|Bonyeka|1992|p=327}} his son became involved in a youth gang street brawl. Sendwe arrived on the scene and ordered some accompanying soldiers to intervene. In the process they beat Senator Pierre Medie, who had come to support his own son.{{sfn|Young|1965|p=364}} On 28 December{{sfn|Gérard-Libois|1966|p=301}} in the Senate Sendwe attempted to defend his actions during the street altercation, being frequently interrupted by angry cries from the majority of the senators.{{sfn|Young|1965|p=365}} Before he was able to complete his defence, they passed a motion of censure against him, 45 votes to four with four abstentions.{{sfn|Bonyeka|1992|p=327}} This resulted in his dismissal as Deputy Prime Minister, causing him to withdraw from national to local politics.{{sfn|Willame|1972|p=50}}{{efn|Verhaegen gave the date of censure as 26 December. According to Omasombo, Sendwe did not lose his post until 21 January 1963.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=222}}}} His departure heralded the removal of the last of the Lumumbists from the government.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=223}}

In early 1963 Katanga was reintegrated into the Congo as multiple provinces and Tshombe agreed to cooperate with government officials. Sendwe vied for control of the region, leading to ethnic clashes in Jadotville in April in which approximately 74 people were killed.{{sfn|Kennes|Larmer|2016|p=63}} After Tshombe fled the country, Sendwe sought to extend his constituency beyond the Baluba to establish control over the whole of Katanga.{{sfn|Willame|1972|p=55}} He questioned the legality of the existence of North Katanga as a separate political entity and continued to push for the reunification of Katanga Province. However, his removal from the central government and the rejection of his unity proposal by the North Katanga Provincial Assembly forced him to relax his goals.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=222}}{{efn|Sendwe never believed that Katanga should remain subdivided, but he was willing to forgo his wish for a time in order to quickly secure regional power.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=218}}}} On 18 May the état d’exception was retracted in North Katanga and he was discharged from his post as Commissioner-General Extraordinaire.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=221}} In July he forced fellow BALUBAKAT member Prosper Mwamba Ilunga to resign from his post as President of North Katanga and replaced him.{{sfn|Willame|1972|p=50}}{{efn|Mwamba Ilunga and Sendwe had a complex party rivalry that emerged in 1960. While Sendwe was the leader of BALUBAKAT, Mwamba Ilunga had led the anti-Tshombe rebellion in northern Katanga from 1960 to 1962.{{sfn|Olorunsola|1972|p=250}} Mwamba Ilunga felt Sendwe had not done enough to assist the insurgency and disapproved of his attempts to dissolve North Katanga.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=223}} He was also a radical progressive, whereas Sendwe was more moderate.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=211}}}}

In January 1964 at a party conference in Albertville Sendwe lost his seat as BALUBAKAT president in a vote, 28–3. He failed to secure any significant party office.{{sfn|Young|1965|p=382}} On 15 March the provincial assembly dismissed Sendwe from his post and replaced him with the leader of a party that had split from BALUBAKAT.{{efn|Prosper Mwamba Ilunga, then serving as President of the North Katanga Provincial Assembly, maintained that the censure motion was not a "coup" but merely the exercise of the assembly's responsibility to check the power of the executive office.^[1]}}{{sfn|O'Ballance|1999|pp=72–73}} Sendwe argued on legal technicality that his removal was unlawful and persuaded the central government to support him. The Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC) reinstated him{{sfn|Young|1965|p=591}} on 28 April with new ministers. In his inaugural address he pledged to strengthen North Katanga's institutions and territorial integrity, protect political parties that sought to further "superior interests" of the Congo, and encourage friendly relations between BALUBAKAT and CONAKAT. He also announced his intention to increase economic cooperation with other provinces and establish cooperatives for merchants and consumers.^[1]

Death

On 27 May Simba rebels launched a coup in Albertville, overthrowing Sendwe's government.{{sfn|Hoskyns|1969|p=xii}} They accused him of embezzling public funds.{{sfn|Colvin|1968|p=159}} Three days later a small government force under the command of Colonel Louis Bobozo recaptured the town and rescued Sendwe—who claimed to have been nearly buried alive by the rebels. However, unrest persisted and on 19 June the population revolted and the government evacuated. Sendwe attempted to flee but was hampered by government troops and was killed by rebels.{{sfn|O'Ballance|1999|p=73}} Questions about his death were raised in several newspapers, and the central government released an official report about it two weeks later.{{sfn|Sendwe, le Heros Indesirable|1989|p=107}}

There are various theories about how and why Sendwe was killed. According to journalist Ian Goodhope Colvin, Sendwe drove towards Fizi with an American missionary but his car was stopped by Simba rebels. His police escort fled and he and his companion were murdered.{{sfn|Colvin|1968|p=168}} According to Jean Omasombo Tshonda, he was arrested by ANC soldiers at Muswaki while escaping by train and forced to return to Albertville. Driving with several relatives, he went into the city to try and calm the Simbas, assuring them of his Lumumbist credentials by shouting (in a reportedly drunken manner), "Lumumba is my brother! Mulele is my brother! All of you, you are my brothers!" The rebels did not heed his words and shot him and some of his companions on Kangomba hill. Erik Kennes examined various testimonies. One witness held Saidi Saleh Mukidadi, a local politician, responsible for the death. Kabuya Lumuna Sando concluded that ANC defectors shot Sendwe. Kennes questioned the validity of the latter claim, noting that most ANC elements had retreated from the area and that no other witnesses reported dissident soldiers forming part of the Simbas' ranks. Simba leader Gaston Soumialot accused Mobutu of organising the murder. Other observers believed that the ANC soldiers' actions in Muswaki indicated that the central government was involved. Kabuya, noting the newer clothing worn by the soldiers, posited that the ANC men were really operatives of the central government. He reasoned that Mobutu, head of the ANC at the time, wanted Sendwe dead so as to make rapprochement with Tshombe easier.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=230}} There is a rumor that the execution was carried out by several Bayombe under orders from rebel leader Laurent-Désiré Kabila.{{sfn|Rahmani|2007|p=192}} Kennes discounted the theory, reasoning that it was unlikely because Kabila did not have Sendwe killed the first time Albertville was seized and was not present when the city fell on 19 June.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=231}}

Legacy

Throughout his career, Sendwe was the undisputed national figure of the Baluba of Katanga.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=251}} According to British journalist Ian Goodhope Colvin, Sendwe's death deprived Adoula of a figure who could guarantee him Katangese support, forcing him to welcome Tshombe back into the country.{{sfn|Colvin|1968|p=160}} His murder also disillusioned many Baluba in North Katanga with the Simbas' cause, and as a result many abstained from joining their rebellion.{{sfn|Colvin|1968|p=173}}{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=231}} BALUBAKAT collapsed in his wake.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|pp=235, 251}} In November 1966 President Mobutu posthumously awarded Sendwe for dying "in defence of the country's honour".^[2] An avenue and a hospital in Lubumbashi were named after him.{{sfn|Fabian|1990|p=139}}{{sfn|Rahmani|2007|p=192}} After his death, Sendwe's legacy drifted into obscurity and by the 21st century there was little political memory of him in northern Katanga.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2014|p=251}} The Union des fédéralistes et des républicains indépendants (UFERI) recalled his legacy in its rhetoric. Due to the party's militant reputation, the public associated UFERI with the violent actions of the BALUBAKAT, thus limiting its ability to proliferate a positive image of Sendwe.{{sfn|Omasombo Tshonda|2018|p=659}}

Notes

Citations

References

• {{cite book| last = Bonyeka| first = Bomandeke| title = Le Parlement congolais sous le régime de la Loi fondamentale| publisher = Presses universitaire du Zaire| date = 1992| location = Kinshasa| language = French| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=u9dEAQAAIAAJ&q=| oclc = 716913628| ref = harv}}
• {{cite book| last = Chomé| first = Jules| title = Moïse Tshombe et l'escroquerie katangaise| publisher = Éditions de la Fondation J. Jacquemotte| date = 1966| location = Brussels| language = French| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GvEuAQAAIAAJ&q=| oclc = 919889| ref = harv}}
• {{cite book| last = Clarke| first = Stephen John Gordon| title = The Congo Mercenary: a history and analysis| publisher = South African Institute of International Affairs| edition = reprint| date = 1968| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ydMuAQAAIAAJ&q=| ref = harv| oclc = 17761721}}
• {{cite book| last = Colvin| first = Ian Goodhope | title = The rise and fall of Moise Tshombe: a biography| publisher = Ferwin| date = 1968| location = London| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FtpyAAAAMAAJ&q=| ref = harv| oclc = 752436625}}
• {{cite book| title = East Africa and Rhodesia| publisher = Africana| volume = 39| location = London| date = 1977| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fqYqAAAAMAAJ&dq=| oclc = 4830800| ref = {{harvid|East Africa and Rhodesia|1977}}}}
• {{cite book| editor-last = Fabian| editor-first = Johannes| title = History from Below: The Vocabulary of Elisabethville by André Yav: Texts, Translation, and Interpretive Essay| publisher = John Benjamins Publishing| date = 1990| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wgwa-96Sm1QC&dq=| isbn = 9789027252272| ref = harv}}
• {{cite book| last1 = Gerard| first1 = Emmanuel| last2 = Kuklick| first2 = Bruce| title = Death in the Congo: Murdering Patrice Lumumba| publisher = Harvard University Press| year = 2015| isbn = 978-0-674-72527-0 | location = Cambridge, MA| author2-link = Bruce Kuklick| ref= harv}}
• {{cite book|last=Gérard-Libois|first=Jules|title=Katanga Secession|date=1966|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|location=Madison|edition=translated|oclc=477435|ref=harv}}
• {{cite book| last = Hoskyns| first = Catherine| title = The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961| publisher = Oxford University Press| date = 1965| location = London| ref = harv| oclc= 414961}}
• {{cite book| last = Hoskyns| first = Catherine| title = The Organization of African Unity and the Congo Crisis, 1964–65: Documents, Issue 1| publisher = Institute of Public Administration, University College, Dar-es-Salaam| date = 1969| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jj0KAQAAIAAJ&q=| location = Dar es Salaam|oclc = 923596549| ref = harv}}
• {{cite book| title = Horizon| publisher = Rhodesian Selection Trust Group of Companies| volume = 4| date = 1962| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EO1LAQAAIAAJ&q=| location = Salisbury| oclc = 503847205| ref = {{harvid|Horizon|1962}}}}
• {{cite book| last = Kanza| first = Thomas R.| author-link = Thomas Kanza| title = The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo| publisher = Schenkman Books, Inc.| edition = expanded| date = 1994| location = Rochester, Vermont| isbn = 978-0-87073-901-9| ref = harv}}
• {{cite book| last = Kennes| first = Erik| last2 = Larmer| first2 = Miles| title = The Katangese Gendarmes and War in Central Africa: Fighting Their Way Home| publisher = Indiana University Press| date = 2016| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WCFjDAAAQBAJ&dq=| isbn = 9780253021502| ref= harv}}
• {{cite book| last = Legum| first = Colin| title = Congo Disaster| publisher = Penguin| date = 1961| url = https://archive.org/details/congodisaster006719mbp| location = Baltimore| oclc = 586629| ref = harv}}
• {{cite book| last = Lemarchand| first = René| title = Political Awakening in the Belgian Congo| publisher = University of California Press| date = 1964| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qFI-Z5YUxigC&dq=| location = Berkley| oclc = 905074256| ref= harv}}
• {{cite book| last = Merriam| first = Alan P.| title = Congo: Background of Conflict| publisher = Northwestern University Press| date = 1961| url = https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.110664| location = Evanston, Illinois| oclc = 424186| ref= harv}}
• {{cite book| last = O'Ballance| first = Edgar| title = The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98| publisher = Springer| edition = illustrated| date = 1999| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vfCADAAAQBAJ&dq=| isbn = 9780230286481| ref= harv}}
• {{cite book| last = Olorunsola| first = Victor A.| title = The Politics of Cultural Sub-nationalism in Africa| publisher = Anchor Books| date = 1972| location = Garden City, New York| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNVBAAAAIAAJ&dq=| oclc = 915692187| ref = harv}}
• {{cite book| editor-last = Omasombo Tshonda| editor-first = Jean| title = Haut-Katanga : Lorsque richesses économiques et pouvoirs politiques forcent une identité régionale| publisher = Musée royal de l’Afrique centrale| volume = 1 |series = Provinces| date = 2018| location = Tervuren| language = French| url = http://www.africamuseum.be/sites/default/files/media/docs/research/publications/rmca/online/monographies-provinces/Haut-Katanga_Tome%201_WEB.pdf| isbn = 978-9-4926-6907-0| ref = harv}}
• {{cite book| editor-last = Omasombo Tshonda| editor-first = Jean| title = Tanganyika : Espace fécondé par le lac et le rail| series = Provinces| date = 2014| location = Tervuren| language = French| url = http://www.africamuseum.be/sites/default/files/media/docs/research/publications/rmca/online/monographies-provinces/tanganyika.pdf| isbn = 978-9-4916-1587-0| ref= harv}}
• {{cite journal| title = Onze mois de crise politique au Congo| journal = Courrier hebdomadaire du CRISP| issue = 120| pages = 1–24| publisher = Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques| date = 1961| language = French| url = http://www.cairn.info/revue-courrier-hebdomadaire-du-crisp-1961-30-page-1.htm| doi = 10.3917/cris.120.0001| ref = {{harvid|CRISP|1961}}}}
• {{cite book| last = Rahmani| first = Moïse| title = Juifs du Congo: la confiance et l'espoir|location= Brussels| publisher = Institut Sépharade européen| date = 2007| language = French| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=96MwAQAAIAAJ&q=| isbn = 9782960002836| ref = harv}}
• {{cite journal| title = Sendwe, le Heros Indesirable?| journal = Les Cahiers du CEDAF| publisher = Centre d'étude et de documentation africaines| location = Brussels| date = 1989| language = French| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1A5wAAAAMAAJ&q=| issn = 0250-1619| ref = {{harvid|Sendwe, le Heros Indesirable|1989}}}}
• {{cite book| last = Willame| first = Jean-Claude| title = Patrimonialism and Political Change in the Congo| location = Stanford| publisher = Stanford University Press| date = 1972| ref = harv| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=S2emAAAAIAAJ&dq=| isbn = 9780804707930}}
• {{cite book| last = Young| first = Crawford| title = Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence|location= Princeton| publisher = Princeton University Press| date = 1965| ref = harv| oclc= 307971}}

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