“Kalugumalai riots of 1895”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Kalugumalai riots of 1895 (commonly referred as Kalugumalai riots) was an inter caste conflict between Nadars (also called Shanars) and Maravars during 1895 in Kalugumalai in Madras Presidency in British India. A total of ten people were killed and numerous people were injured. The temple chariot of Kalugasalamoorthy Temple was also burnt during the riots. The contention of the communities were over the usage of the Car streets round the temple by Nadars, which were opposed by the other communities quoting private ownership and religious sanctity.

There was an elongated Court battle between the Nadars and the Ettaiyapuram Zamindar, who donated the streets to the temple. All the appeals of the Nadar seeking public ownership of the streets were rejected by the courts. The Nadars’ rapid rise as a business community and their conversion to Christianity seeking higher social status lead to the mutual confrontation between the Maravars and Nadars, reaching its peak in 1895, leading to a series of riots.

The Sessions Court convicted two Nadars, named Mahalinga and Karutna and sentenced them to death on 17 August 1895, while others received 3 to 6 months. The appeal in the High Court was made by Caussanel, the French missionary, immediately in favour of the Nadars and he argued that the evidences were not properly examined by the Sessions court. The High Court overruled the verdict of the lower court and set all of the accused free. The Sivakasi riots of 1899 is considered as an aftermath to this riots.

Background

Kalugasalamoorthy Temple was under the control of Ettaiyapuram Zamindar under 1954. South Indian villages have the streets built around temples in concentric rectangles to enable the temple chariot movement around the temple. There type of temple chariot being made of gold or silver or wood decided the closest path the chariots would traverse in the order. The Raja gifted the village to the temple and formed four streets around the temple in rectangular fashion as with other south Indian villages to enable the temple car to pass easily. He also allocated a middle street bisecting the rectangle, for the temple priests, which had altars where the priests used to perform austerities during normal worship hours and festivals. During prominent festivals, the temple chariot was taken around the Kalugumail hills.

As per official account, the village had a population of 3,800 in 1890 with 500 Nadars and 475 Maravars. As in the case with villages in South India, people resided in specific streets based on their castes. The Nadars resided in streets in the north-east, which were outside the car streets but within the longer route of temple procession round the hill.

Caste politics

By the end of the 19th century, the Nadars’ rapid rise as a business community and the mutual confrontation between the Maravars and Nadars reached its peak in 1895, leading to a series of riots.^[2]^[3]^[4]

During the Panguni Uthiram festival procession, the elongated conflict between two castes in the region, namely, Nadars and Maravars resulted in a riots, popularly called Kalugumalai riots.^[2]

Legal proceedings

During 1851, the Nadars tried to conduct a marriage procession in one of the four car streets, which was blocked by other castes. The Zamindar ruled that the Nadars can go up to the Pillaiyar temple in East Giri Street. There was another attempt made by the Nadars in 1866 when he District Collector negotiated a compromise by allowing Nadars to go in palanquins up to the Pillayar temple. There were further attempts in 1885, when the Zamindar sought legal action. He argued that the streets belonged to the temple and the temple reserved the right to allow religious processions to maintain the purity of the streets. The Nadars contended that the streets were public places where everyone had equal rights. The witnesses claimed that the Nadar procession never went beyond the north eastern altar in the past. There was also a contention about a Nadar owning a shop in one of the streets. During 1899, the Munisif ruled that the streets belonged to the temple. The case was taken to an appeal judge by the Nadars. By around this time, the Zamindar died and his juvenile heir was helped by his manager. The appeal judge ruled that the trader, Kalimuthu, who was having a house in East Car Street, recognised the rights of the temple and hence discharged the appeal. With further appeal, the Chief Justice ruled on 7 August 1899 that the temple had not dedicated the streets as public. With all legal proceedings going against them, the Nadars resorted to religious conversions to Catholics.^[2]

The riots

A French missionary by name Caussanel bought the same house in the East Car Street and started building a Church in the locality. When the foundation was laid, there were clashes where some Nadars were set ablaze. After official intervention, the church was built, but a protruding facade (called pandal) believed to have impeded the path of the temple car. On 7 April 1895, during the Panguni Uthiram festival of the temple, the temple chariot was drawn around the streets of Kalugumalai and it reached the East Car Street where the Pandal was protruding from the church. The Estate manager tried to convince the Nadars to remove the Pandal. As per some accounts, there was enough space for the chariot to move, but the other caste communities demanded the removal. It is unclear on who started the clash, but the Estate manager was stabbed to death along with the Munisif of Duraisaipuram village, who sustained injuries and died after a while. The caste Hindu Maravars set the church roof on fire and attacked the Nadar households. The houses and business establishments were burnt and women, children were also attacked. The press reports claimed 27 Nadars were killed, but the official numbers quoted only 20.

A total of 24 people were killed, more than 100 people injured and the temple car and other property in the region were destroyed.^[5]

Trial

Many Nadars were arrested after the riots, but the timing of the arrests were debated. The rivals provided contrasting accounts of the events to the Munisif court, while Caussenel gave a hand-written note to the Sub-Magistrate stating that the opposing Hindu started pelting stones to initiate the events and set fire to the church. The wounded manager gave an evidence before death that he was stabbed by a Nadar. There were a total of 34 Nadars who were arrested in connection with the case. The Session Court heard both the sides' argument and ruled that Mahalinga and Karutna belonging to the Nadar side were sentenced to death on 17 August 1895, while others received 3 to 6 months. The appeal in the High Court was made by Caussanel immediately and he argued that the evidences were not properly examined by the Sessions court. The High Court overruled the verdict of the lower court and set all of the accused free. Causannel was welcomed by the Nadars from the region and he was taken in procession through Srivilliputhur and Sivakasi.^[5]

Aftermath

The caste fights continued in the region between Nadars and Maravars and eventually there was another riot in Sivakasi, the Sivakasi riots of 1899.^[6] The most common references to the riots are from the British official accounts. The works of Hardgrave (1969) and Susan Bayly (1989) are the most commonly referred edicts, but have been criticized for the amount of on-field work carried out. Most of the work are from published accounts and testimonies of inhabitants in the modern times. Religious prejudices favouring the Shanars who converted to Christianity is also a common accusation questioning the neutrality of the studies.^[5]

References

1. ^{{cite web|title=Sthala Varalaru|url=http://www.kalugumalaitemple.tnhrce.in/kalakumalai_history.html|publisher= Hindu Religious and Endowment Board, Government of Tamil Nadu|year=2015|accessdate=4 November 2015}}
2. ^{{cite book | title=The Nadars of Tamil Nadu| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZ9mqiLgkdEC&pg=PA118&dq=sivakasi+riots&hl=en&sa=X&ei=EyzoUP7JIoGQ8wSI3IDQCQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=sivakasi%20riots&f=false|edition=| first=Robert|last= Hardgrave| date=| page=118| publisher=University of California Press| year=1969|isbn=}}
3. ^{{cite book|title=Ritualizing on the Boundaries: Continuity And Innovation in the Tamil Diaspora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uRxAOJWnyEwC&pg=PA89&dq=sivakasi+riots&hl=en&sa=X&ei=EyzoUP7JIoGQ8wSI3IDQCQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=sivakasi%20riots&f=false|pages=89–90|last= Clothey|first=Fred W.|publisher=University of South California|year=2006|isbn=9781570036477}}
4. ^{{cite book|title=Converting Women: Gender and Protestant Christianity in Colonial South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HzlkWtM9IJYC&pg=PA299&dq=sivakasi+riots&hl=en&sa=X&ei=EyzoUP7JIoGQ8wSI3IDQCQ&ved=0CEcQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=sivakasi%20riots&f=false|last= Kent|first=Eliza F.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|page=299|isbn=0-19-516507-1|location=New York}}
5. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{cite journal|title=The Car and the Palanquin: Rival Accounts of the 1895 Riot in Kalugumalai, South India|jstor=313150|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=33|issue=1|subscription=yes|publisher=Cambridge University Press|last=Good|first=Anthony|pages=23–65|doi=10.1017/s0026749x99003200}}
6. ^{{cite news|url=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=TS18990801.2.67|title=Current Topics|date=1 August 1899|work=Star|location= Christchurch, New Zealand|page=4|accessdate=2009-11-08}}