| 词条 | Littoral cone |
| 释义 |
Littoral cones are a form of volcanic cone. They form from the interaction between lava flows and water. Steam explosions fragment the lava and the fragments can pile up and form a cone. Such cones usually form on aa lava flows, and typically require large lava flows to form. They have been found on Hawaii and elsewhere. Littoral cones are semicircular cones which are breached in the direction of the lava flow that created them. They are formed by mounds of clasts that appear like cones without a crater.{{sfn|Fisher|1968|p=839}} Littoral cones are constructed by volcanic ash, lava bombs and lapilli.[1] Their component material is usually poorly sorted and can feature agglutinated structures and layering.[2] Sometimes spatter-fed lava flows occur on such cones.[3] They are formed by degassed hyaloclastite.{{sfn|Jurado-Chichay|Rowland|Walker|1996|p=477}}{{sfn|Fisher|1968|p=839}} The most common form found on Hawaii involves two semicircles on both sides of the lava flow that generated them;{{sfn|Jurado-Chichay|Rowland|Walker|1996|p=472}} some such cones on Hawaii form a complete rim with diameters of {{convert|200|-|400|m}}.{{sfn|Jurado-Chichay|Rowland|Walker|1996|p=471}} Puu Ki on Hawaii has nested craters on top of a lava tube.[4] Typically such cones are not larger than {{convert|800|m}} wide and {{convert|75|m}} high.[2] Other smaller cones on Hawaii have diameters of {{convert|40|m}} and heights reaching {{convert|15|m}}.{{sfn|Jurado-Chichay|Rowland|Walker|1996|p=478}} Littoral cones not primary volcanic vents and distinguishing between a littoral cone and a primary vent can be difficult.[2] A littoral cone forms when lava flows from land into water. Interaction between the water and the lava leads to steam explosions. These explosions throw lava fragments into the air; under favourable circumstances these fragments pile up on land and form a cone.{{sfn|Moore|Ault|1965|p=3}} This activity may resemble that of fire fountaining.{{sfn|Jurado-Chichay|Rowland|Walker|1996|p=478}} Repeated phases of magma-water mixing lead to the formation of bedded deposits.[1] The steam explosions can lead to the formation of Pele's hair. The forming lava flows need to be sufficiently large;{{sfn|Moore|Ault|1965|p=9}} the minimum size of lava flows that have formed such cones in Hawaii is {{convert|50,000,000|yd3|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Moore|Ault|1965|p=10}} Of these, about 5-6% of their volume is converted to fragments.[2] Usually littoral cones are formed by aa lava as their fragmented nature allows ideal water-lava interactions, but pahoehoe and intermediary lavas can also form littoral cones.{{sfn|Fisher|1968|p=861}} Other properties such as the speed of the lava flow and the structure of the flow front also influence the formation of littoral cones.{{sfn|Moore|Ault|1965|p=10}} Larger lava flow rates generate larger cones.{{sfn|Jurado-Chichay|Rowland|Walker|1996|p=481}} In some littoral cones on Hawaii that were formed by pahoehoe lava flows, the collapse of a lava bench and subsequent steam explosions formed the cones instead.{{sfn|Jurado-Chichay|Rowland|Walker|1996|p=471}} Pyroclastic flows can also form littoral cones, one such cone has been found on Lombok and formed during the 1257 Samalas eruption.[10] Pseudocraters and littoral cones have been found on Iceland, Hawaii, Cerro Azul in the Gálapagos Islands,{{sfn|Jurado-Chichay|Rowland|Walker|1996|p=471}} Deception Island, Antarctica,[11] and Medicine Lake Volcano, California.[12] Sometimes the words "pseudocrater" and "littoral cone" are used as synonyms.[13] Littoral cones are usually quickly removed by sea erosion; thus littoral cones are rare.{{sfn|Moore|Ault|1965|p=3}} Prehistorical littoral cones have been found on the coast of Hawaii, where the volcanoes Mauna Loa and Kilauea face the sea. They were named "littoral cones" by Wentworth in 1938.{{sfn|Fisher|1968|p=842}} About 50 large cones are found on these two volcanoes and only three of them were formed during historical times; no such cones have been found on the other Hawaiian volcanoes.{{sfn|Moore|Ault|1965|p=3}} The Puu Oo and Mauna Ulu eruptions of Kilauea have also formed small littoral cones.{{sfn|Jurado-Chichay|Rowland|Walker|1996|p=471}} Examples of littoral cones include Sand Hills (1840 eruption) on Kilauea in Hawaii,{{sfn|Fisher|1968|p=841}} 'Au'au, Nā Pu'u a Pele, Pu'u Hou (1868 eruption) and Pu'u Kī (eruption 1300 years ago) at Mauna Loa on Hawaii,{{sfn|Jurado-Chichay|Rowland|Walker|1996|p=472}} a cone close to Villamil at Sierra Negra, Galapagos,[14] Eldborg (1800 years ago) at Hengill on Iceland,[15] a cone in the Winter Water unit of the Columbia Plateau Basalts, Oregon,[16] a cone at Becharof Lake, Alaska,[17] Burilan and Devil Rock on Gaua,[18] and Ponta de Ferraria (eruption 840 ± 60 years ago) on São Miguel Island, Azores.[19] The Speedwell Vent in Derbyshire, United Kingdom may also be a littoral cone of Carboniferous age.[20] Pleistocene littoral cones may also exist in Lake Tahoe, California.[21] References1. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Smellie|first1=J.L.|title=Lithostratigraphy and volcanic evolution of Deception Island, South Shetland Islands|journal=Antarctic Science|date=27 April 2004|volume=13|issue=2|page=201|doi=10.1017/S0954102001000281}} [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]2. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Vidal|first1=Céline M.|last2=Komorowski|first2=Jean-Christophe|last3=Métrich|first3=Nicole|last4=Pratomo|first4=Indyo|last5=Kartadinata|first5=Nugraha|last6=Prambada|first6=Oktory|last7=Michel|first7=Agnès|last8=Carazzo|first8=Guillaume|last9=Lavigne|first9=Franck|last10=Rodysill|first10=Jessica|last11=Fontijn|first11=Karen|last12=Surono|title=Dynamics of the major plinian eruption of Samalas in 1257 A.D. (Lombok, Indonesia)|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|date=8 August 2015|volume=77|issue=9|page=7|doi=10.1007/s00445-015-0960-9}} 3. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Zhong|last2=Wicks|first2=Charles|last3=Dzurisin|first3=Daniel|last4=Power|first4=John A.|last5=Moran|first5=Seth C.|last6=Thatcher|first6=Wayne|title=Magmatic inflation at a dormant stratovolcano: 1996-1998 activity at Mount Peulik volcano, Alaska, revealed by satellite radar interferometry|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth|date=July 2002|volume=107|issue=B7|page=4|doi=10.1029/2001JB000471}} 4. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Métrich|first1=N.|last2=Bertagnini|first2=A.|last3=Garaebiti|first3=E.|last4=Vergniolle|first4=S.|last5=Bani|first5=P.|last6=Beaumais|first6=A.|last7=Neuville|first7=D.R.|title=Magma transfer and degassing budget: Application to the 2009–2010 eruptive crisis of Mt Garet (Vanuatu arc)|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|date=August 2016|volume=322|page=49|doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2015.06.003}} 5. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Walker|first1=George P. 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Fisher|author2=Hans-Ulrich Schmincke|title=Pyroclastic Rocks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UL3_CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|date=6 December 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-74864-6|pages=263–264}} 10. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Greeley|first1=Ronald|last2=Fagents|first2=Sarah A.|title=Icelandic pseudocraters as analogs to some volcanic cones on Mars|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets|date=25 September 2001|volume=106|issue=E9|page=20533|doi=10.1029/2000JE001378}} 11. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=EINARSSON|first1=ARNI|title=The palaeolimnology of Lake Myvatn, northern Iceland: plant and animal microfossils in the sediment|journal=Freshwater Biology|date=February 1982|volume=12|issue=1|page=65|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.1982.tb00603.x}} 12. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Stevenson|first=J. A.|last2=Mitchell|first2=N.|last3=Mochrie|first3=F.|last4=Cassidy|first4=M.|last5=Pinkerton|first5=H.|date=2009-12-01|title=Lava entering water: the different behaviour of aa and pahoehoe at the Nesjahraun, Thingvellir, Iceland|bibcode=2009AGUFM.V51D1749S|journal=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts|volume=51|pages=V51D–1749}} 13. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Lima|first1=Ana|last2=Nunes|first2=João Carlos|last3=Brilha|first3=José|title=Monitoring of the Visitors Impact at "Ponta da Ferraria e Pico das Camarinhas" Geosite (São Miguel Island, Azores UNESCO Global Geopark, Portugal)|journal=Geoheritage|volume=9|issue=4|date=9 November 2016|page=3|doi=10.1007/s12371-016-0203-2}} 14. ^1 2 3 4 {{Cite book|title=Beaches and Coastal Geology|last=Green|first=Jack|date=1982-01-01|publisher=Springer US|isbn=9780879332136|series=Encyclopedia of Earth Science|pages=519–520|language=en|doi=10.1007/0-387-30843-1_260|chapter = Littoral cones}} 15. ^1 {{cite web|url=https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2005AM/finalprogram/abstract_94822.htm|title=PLIOCENE/PLEISTOCENE BASALTIC PILLOW LAVA AND TUFF ALONG NW SHORE OF LAKE TAHOE, CA: NEARSHORE VENT OR LITTORAL CONE?|website=gsa.confex.com|access-date=2016-11-24}} 16. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Cheshire|first1=S. 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4 : Volcanic cones|Volcanic landforms|Volcanoes|Volcanology |
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