“Abrahamic religions”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The Abrahamic religions, also referred to collectively as Abrahamism, are a group of Semitic-originated religious communities of faith that claim descent from the Judaism of the ancient Israelites and the worship of the God of Abraham. The Abrahamic religions are monotheistic, with the term deriving from the patriarch Abraham (a major biblical figure from The Old Testament, which is recognized by Jews, Christians, Muslims, and others).^[1]

Abrahamic religion spread globally through Christianity being adopted by the Roman Empire in the 4th century and Islam by the Islamic Empires from the 7th century. Today the Abrahamic religions are one of the major divisions in comparative religion (along with Indian, Iranian, and East Asian religions).^[2] The major Abrahamic religions in chronological order of founding are Judaism (the base of the other two religions) in the 7th century BCE,^[3] Christianity in the 1st century CE, and Islam in the 7th century CE.

Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are the Abrahamic religions with the greatest numbers of adherents.^[4]^[5]^[6] Abrahamic religions with fewer adherents include the faiths descended from Yazdânism (the Yezidi, Yarsani faiths), Samaritanism,^[7] the Druze faith,^[8] Bábism,^[9]{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} the Bahá'í Faith, and Rastafari.^[10]^[10]

Etymology

It was suggested by Louis Massignon that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that all these religions come from one spiritual source.^[4] Paul the Apostle referred to Abraham as the "father of us all".{{bibleref2c|Rom.|4}} There is a Quranic term, millat Ibrahim, 'religion of Ibrahim',^[5]^[6] indicating that Islam sees itself as standing in a tradition of religious practice from Abraham.^[15] Jewish tradition claims that the Jews are descended from Abraham, and adherents of Judaism derive their spiritual identity from Abraham as the first of the three "fathers" or biblical Patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.

All the major Abrahamic religions claim a direct lineage to Abraham, although in Christianity this is understood in spiritual terms:

Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be considered misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is commonality among the religions, in large measure their shared ancestry is peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences.^[23] For example, the common Christian beliefs of Incarnation, Trinity, and the resurrection of Jesus are not accepted by Judaism or Islam (see for example Islamic view of Jesus' death). There are key beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are not shared by most of Christianity (such as strict monotheism and adherence to Divine Law), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Bahá'í Faith not shared by Judaism (such as the prophetic and Messianic position of Jesus, respectively).^[19]

Challenges to term

The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam by the terms "Abrahamic religions" or "Abrahamic traditions" has been challenged.

In 2012, Alan L. Berger, Professor of Judaic Studies at Florida Atlantic University,^[20] in his Preface to Trialogue and Terror: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam after 9/11 wrote that there are "commonalities", but "there are essential differences between the Abrahamic traditions" both "historical and theological". Although "Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam", the "three monotheistic faiths went their separate ways". The three faiths "understand the role of Abraham" in "differing ways", and the relationships between Judaism and Christianity and between Judaism and Islam are "uneven". Also, the three traditions are "demographically unbalanced and ideologically diverse".^[21]

Also in 2012, Aaron W. Hughes published a book about the category Abrahamic religions as an example of "abuses of history." He said that only recently the category "Abrahamic religions" has come into use and that it is a "vague referent." It is "largely a theological neologism" and "an artificial and imprecise" term. Combining the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim religions into this one category might serve the purpose of encouraging "interfaith trialogue", but it is not true to the "historical record". Abrahamic religions is "an ahistorical category". There are "certain family resemblances" among these three religions, but the "amorphous" term Abrahamic religions prevents an understanding of the "complex nature" of the interactions among them. Furthermore, the three religions do not share the same story of Abraham. For these and other reasons, Hughes argued that the term should not be used, at least in academic circles.^[22]

Religions

Judaism

One of Judaism's primary texts is the Tanakh, an account of the Israelites' relationship with God from their earliest history until the building of the Second Temple (c. 535 BCE). Abraham is hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people. One of his great-grandsons was Judah, from whom the religion ultimately gets its name. The Israelites were initially a number of tribes who lived in the Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah.

After being conquered and exiled, some members of the Kingdom of Judah eventually returned to Israel. They later formed an independent state under the Hasmonean dynasty in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, before becoming a client kingdom of the Roman Empire, which also conquered the state and dispersed its inhabitants. From the 2nd to the 6th centuries Jews wrote the Talmud, a lengthy work of legal rulings and Biblical exegesis which, along with the Tanakh, is a key text of Judaism.

Christianity

Christianity began in the 1st century as a sect within Judaism initially led by Jesus. His followers viewed him as the Messiah, as in the Confession of Peter; after his crucifixion and death they came to view him as God incarnate,^[23] who was resurrected and will return at the end of time to judge the living and the dead and create an eternal Kingdom of God. Within a few decades the new movement split from Judaism.

After several periods of alternating persecution and relative peace vis a vis the Roman authorities under different administrations, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire in 380, but has been split into various churches from its beginning. An attempt was made by the Byzantine Empire to unify Christendom, but this formally failed with the East–West Schism of 1054. In the 16th century, the birth and growth of Protestantism further split Christianity into many denominations.

Islam

Islam is based on the teachings of the Quran. Although it considers Muhammad to be the Seal of the prophets, Islam teaches that every prophet preached Islam, as the word Islam literally means "submission" to God, the main concept preached by all Abrahamic prophets. The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words of Allah (i.e. God in Arabic). Islam is a universal religion (membership is open to anyone). Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, called tawhid, or "strict" or "simple" monotheism.^[24]

Other Abrahamic religions

Historically, the Abrahamic religions have been considered to be Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Some of this is due to the age and larger size of these three. The other, similar religions were seen as either too new to judge as being truly in the same class, or too small to be of significance to the category.

However, some of the restriction of Abrahamic to these three is due only to tradition in historical classification. Therefore, restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism.^[25] The religions listed below here claim Abrahamic classification, either by the religions themselves, or by scholars who study them.

Bahá'í Faith

The Bahá'í Faith, which dates only to the late 19th century, has sometimes been listed as Abrahamic by scholarly sources in various fields.^[31]^[26]^[27]

Though smaller and younger than the well-known Abrahamic religions, the Bahá'í Faith is significant because of its activities, distribution and numbers. The religion is almost entirely contained in a single, organized community with international, national, regional, and local administration, without sects or subdivisions, and is recognized as the second-most geographically widespread religion after Christianity.^[28]^[29] The Association of Religion Data Archives estimated some 7.3 million Bahá'ís in 2005^[30] and the only religion to consistently surpass population growth in each major region of the planet over the last century, often growing at twice the rate of the population.^[31]

The religion also shares many of the same commonalities of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.^[32]^[38]^[39] The religion emphasizes monotheism and believes in one eternal transcendent God,^[40]^[41]^[42] the station of the founders of the major religions as Manifestations of God come with revelation^[41]^[43]^[44] as a series of interventions by God in human history that has been progressive, and each preparing the way for the next.^[27] There is no definitive list of Manifestations of God, but Bahá'u'lláh and `Abdu'l-Bahá referred to several personages as Manifestations; they include individuals generally not recognized by other Abrahamic religions—Krishna, Zoroaster, and Buddha^[45]—and general statements go further to other cultures.^[46]

Bábism

Founded in 1844, Bábism flourished in Persia until 1852, then lingered on in exile in the Ottoman Empire, especially Cyprus, as well as underground. An anomaly amongst Islamic messianic movements, the Bábí movement signaled a break with Islam, beginning a new religious system with its own unique laws, teachings, and practices. While Bábism was violently opposed by both clerical and government establishments, it led to the founding of the Bahá'í Faith, whose followers consider the religion founded by the Báb as a predecessor to their own.

Samaritanism

Samaritanism is based on some of the same books used as the basis of Judaism but differs from the latter. Samaritan religious works include the Samaritan version of the Torah, the Memar Markah, the Samaritan liturgy, and Samaritan law codes and biblical commentaries. Many{{who|date=April 2017}} claim the Samaritans appear to have a text of the Torah as old as the Masoretic Text; scholars have various theories concerning the actual relationships between these three texts.

Yazdânism (the Yezidi, Yarsani and Alevi faiths)

According to Izady, Yazdânism is now continued in the denominations of Yazidism, Yarsanism, and Alevism.^[58] The three traditions subsumed under the term Yazdânism are primarily practiced in relatively isolated communities, from Khurasan to Anatolia and parts of western Iran.

The concept of Yazdânism has found a wide perception both within and beyond Kurdish nationalist discourses, but has been disputed by other recognized scholars of Iranian religions. Well established, however, are the "striking" and "unmistakable" similarities between the Yazidis and the Yaresan or Ahl-e Haqq,{{sfn|Kreyenbroek|1995|pages=54; 59}} some of which can be traced back to elements of an ancient faith that was probably dominant among Western Iranians^[59] and likened to practices of pre-Zoroastrian Mithraic religion.^[60] Mehrdad Izady defines the Yazdanism as an ancient Hurrian religion and states that Mitannis could have introduced some of the Vedic tradition that appears to be manifest in Yazdanism.^[61]

Shabakism

The organization of Shabakism appears to be much like that of a Sufi order: adult laymen (Murids) are bound to spiritual guides (pîrs or Murshids) who are knowledgeable in matters of religious doctrine and ritual. There are several ranks of such pîrs; at the top stands the Baba, or supreme head of the order. Theoretically individuals can choose their own pîr, but in practice the pir families often become associated with lay families over several generations.^[68]

Shabakism combines elements of Sufism with the uniquely Shabak interpretation of "divine reality." According to Shabaks, this divine reality supersedes the literal, or Shar'ia, interpretation of the Quran. Shabaks comprehend divine reality through the mediation of the "Pir" or spiritual guide, who also performs Shabak rituals.^[69] The structure of these mediatory relationships closely resembles that of the Yarsan.^[70]

The primary Shabak religious text is the Buyruk or Kitab al-Managib (Book of Exemplary Acts) and is written in Turkoman.^[70]^[71] Shabaks also consider the poetry of Ismail I to be revealed by God, and they recite Ismail's poetry during religious meetings.^[69]

Mandeanism

Druze faith

The Druze faith is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion based on the teachings of high Islamic figures like Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad and Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, and Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle.^[74]^[75] The Epistles of Wisdom is the foundational text of the Druze faith.^[76] The Druze faith incorporates elements of Islam's Ismailism,^[77] Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, Pythagoreanism, Hinduism (according to some),^[78]^[79] and other philosophies and beliefs, creating a distinct and secretive theology known to interpret esoterically religious scriptures, and to highlight the role of the mind and truthfulness.^[79] The Druze follow theophany,{{clarify|date=May 2018}} and believe in reincarnation or the transmigration of the soul.{{Sfn | Nisan | 2002 | p = [https://books.google.com/books?id=keD9z1XWuNwC&pg=PA98&dq=Mordechai+Nisan++druze&ei=IJ5uSLuLMZOkiwHp99SCBg&sig=ACfU3U2QHNki1phQdaWTIOKngGyVPLnTbw#PPA100,M1 95]}} At the end of the cycle of rebirth, which is achieved through successive reincarnations, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind (Al Aaqal Al Kulli).^[80]

Rastafari

Rastafari, sometimes termed Rastafarianism, is an Abrahamic religion. Classified as both a new religious movement and social movement, it developed in Jamaica during the 1930s. It lacks any centralised authority and there is much heterogeneity among practitioners, who are known as Rastafari, Rastafarians, or Rastas.

Rastafari refer to their beliefs, which are based on a specific interpretation of the Bible, as "Rastalogy". Central is a monotheistic belief in a single God—referred to as Jah—who partially resides within each individual. The former emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie, is given central importance. Many Rastas regard him as an incarnation of Jah on Earth and as the Second Coming of Christ. Others regard him as a human prophet who fully recognised the inner divinity within every individual. Rastafari is Afrocentric and focuses its attention on the African diaspora, which it believes is oppressed within Western society, or "Babylon". Many Rastas call for the resettlement of the African diaspora in either Ethiopia or Africa more widely, referring to this continent as the Promised Land of "Zion". Other interpretations shift focus on to the adoption of an Afrocentric attitude while living outside of Africa. Rastas refer to their practices as "livity". Communal meetings are known as "groundations", and are typified by music, chanting, discussions, and the smoking of cannabis, the latter being regarded as a sacrament with beneficial properties. Rastas place emphasis on what they regard as living 'naturally', adhering to ital dietary requirements, allowing their hair to form into dreadlocks, and following patriarchal gender roles.

Rastafari originated among impoverished and socially disenfranchised Afro-Jamaican communities. Its Afrocentric ideology was largely a reaction against Jamaica's then-dominant British colonial culture. It was influenced by both Ethiopianism and the Back-to-Africa movement promoted by black nationalist figures like Marcus Garvey. The movement developed after several Christian clergymen, most notably Leonard Howell, proclaimed that the crowning of Haile Selassie as Emperor of Ethiopia in 1930 fulfilled a Biblical prophecy. By the 1950s, Rastafari's counter-cultural stance had brought the movement into conflict with wider Jamaican society, including violent clashes with law enforcement. In the 1960s and 1970s it gained increased respectability within Jamaica and greater visibility abroad through the popularity of Rasta-inspired reggae musicians like Bob Marley. Enthusiasm for Rastafari declined in the 1980s, following the deaths of Haile Selassie and Marley.

The Rasta movement is organised on a largely cellular basis. There are several denominations, or "Mansions of Rastafari", the most prominent of which are the Nyahbinghi, Bobo Ashanti, Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church, and the Twelve Tribes of Israel, each of which offers different interpretations of Rasta belief. There are an estimated 700,000 to 1 million Rastas across the world; the largest population is in Jamaica although communities can be found in most of the world's major population centres.

Abrahamic ethno-religious groups

Some small religions, such as Samaritanism,^[81] Druze,^[80] Rastafari movement,^[33] and the Bábí Faith, are Abrahamic. These religions are regional, with Samaritans largely in Israel and the West Bank,^[82] Druze largely in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan,^[83] and Rastafari largely in Jamaica.^[84]

Origins and history

The civilizations that developed in Mesopotamia influenced some religious texts, particularly the Hebrew Bible and the Book of Genesis in particular; Abraham is said to have originated in Mesopotamia.^[85]

Judaism regards itself as the religion of the descendants of Jacob,^[86] a grandson of Abraham. It has a strictly unitary view of God, and the central holy book for almost all branches is the Masoretic Text as elucidated in the Oral Torah. In the 19th century and 20th centuries Judaism developed a small number of branches, of which the most significant are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform.

Christianity began as a sect of Judaism^[87] in the Mediterranean Basin^[88] of the first century CE and evolved into a separate religion—Christianity—with distinctive beliefs and practices. Jesus is the central figure of Christianity, considered by almost all denominations to be God the Son, one person of the Trinity. (See God in Christianity.^[89]) The Christian biblical canons are usually held to be the ultimate authority, alongside sacred tradition in some denominations (such as the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church). Over many centuries, Christianity divided into three main branches (Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant), dozens of significant denominations, and hundreds of smaller ones.

Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula^[90] in the 7th century CE with a strictly unitary view of God.^[91] Muslims hold the Quran to be the ultimate authority, as revealed and elucidated through the teachings and practices^[92] of a central, but not divine prophet, Muhammad. The Islamic faith considers all prophets and messengers from Adam through the final messenger (Muhammad) to carry the same Islamic monotheistic principles. Soon after its founding, Islam split into two main branches (Sunni and Shia Islam), each of which now has a number of denominations.

The Bahá'í Faith began within the context of Shia Islam in 19th-century Persia, after a merchant named Siyyid `Alí Muḥammad Shírází claimed divine revelation and took on the title of the Báb, or "the Gate". The Bab's ministry proclaimed the imminent advent of "He whom God shall make manifest", who Bahá'í's accept as Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'í's revere the Torah, Gospels and the Quran, and the writings of the Báb, Bahá'u'lláh, and `Abdu’l-Bahá' are considered the central texts of the faith. A vast majority of adherents are unified under a single denomination.^[93]

Lesser-known Abrahamic religions, originally offshoots of Shia Islam, include Bábism^[94] and the Druze faith.^[95]

Common aspects

The unifying characteristic of Abrahamic religions is that all accept the tradition that God revealed himself to the patriarch Abraham.^[110] All are monotheistic, and conceive God to be a transcendent creator and the source of moral law.^[96] Their religious texts feature many of the same figures, histories, and places, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings.^[97] Believers who agree on these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to also be more positive towards other Abrahamic groups.^[98]

In these four Abrahamic religions(Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Bahai Faith), the individual, God, and the universe are highly separate from each other. The Abrahamic religions believe in a judging, paternal, fully external god to which the individual and nature are subordinate. One seeks salvation or transcendence not by contemplating the natural world or via philosophical speculation, but by seeking to please God (such as obedience with God's wishes or his law) and see divine revelation as outside of self, nature, and custom.

Monotheism

All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, although one known by different names.^[99] Each of these religions preaches that God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, and forgives.^[100]^[101] However, although Christianity does not profess to believe in three gods—but rather in three persons, or hypostases, united in one essence—the Trinitarian doctrine, a fundamental of faith for the vast majority of Christian denominations,^[102]^[103] conflicts with Jewish, Muslim, and Bahá'í concepts of monotheism. Since the conception of a divine Trinity is not amenable to tawhid, the Islamic doctrine of monotheism, Islam regards Christianity as variously polytheistic.^[104]

Christianity, Islam, and the Bahá'í Faith each revere Jesus (Arabic: Isa or Yasu among Muslims and Arab Christians respectively) but with vastly differing conceptions:

However, the worship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God (known as shirk in Islam and as shituf in Judaism), is typically viewed as the heresy of idolatry by Islam and Judaism and as misguided by the Bahá'ís. Judaism, Islam, and the Bahá'í Faith also see the incarnation of God into human form as a heresy.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

Theological continuity

All the Abrahamic religions affirm one eternal God who created the universe, who rules history, who sends prophetic and angelic messengers and who reveals the divine will through inspired revelation. They also affirm that obedience to this creator deity is to be lived out historically and that one day God will unilaterally intervene in human history at the Last Judgment.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

Scripture

All Abrahamic religions believe that God guides humanity through revelation to prophets, and each religion recognizes that God revealed teachings up to and including those in their own scripture.

Ethical orientation

An ethical orientation: all these religions speak of a choice between good and evil, which is associated with obedience or disobedience to a single God and to Divine Law.

Eschatological world view

An eschatological world view of history and destiny, beginning with the creation of the world and the concept that God works through history, and ending with a resurrection of the dead and final judgment and world to come.^[107]

Importance of Jerusalem

Jerusalem is considered Judaism's holiest city. Its origins can be dated to 1004 BCE^[108] when according to Biblical tradition David established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son Solomon built the First Temple on Mount Moriah.^[109] Since the Hebrew Bible relates that Isaac's sacrifice took place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews predates even these prominent events. Jews thrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for the restoration and the rebuilding of the Holy Temple (the Third Temple) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement "Next year in built Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal. Jerusalem has served as the only capital for the five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BCE (the United Kingdom of Israel, the Kingdom of Judah, Yehud Medinata, the Hasmonean Kingdom, and modern Israel). It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today.^[110]^[111]

Jerusalem was an early center of Christianity. There has been a continuous Christian presence there since.^[112] William R. Kenan, Jr., professor of the history of Christianity at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the 4th century to the Islamic conquest in the middle of the 7th century, the Roman province of Palestine was a Christian nation with Jerusalem its principal city.^[112] According to the New Testament, Jerusalem was the city Jesus was brought to as a child to be presented at the temple{{Bibleref2c|Luke|2:22}} and for the feast of the Passover.{{Bibleref2c|Luke|2:41}} He preached and healed in Jerusalem, unceremoniously drove the money changers in disarray from the temple there, held the Last Supper in an "upper room" (traditionally the Cenacle) there the night before he is said to have died on the cross, was arrested in Gethsemane. The six parts to Jesus' trial—three stages in a religious court and three stages before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem. His crucifixion at Golgotha, his burial nearby (traditionally the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), and his resurrection and ascension and prophecy to return all are said to have occurred or will occur there.

Jerusalem became holy to Muslims, third after Mecca and Medina. The Al-Aqsa Mosque, which translates to "farthest mosque" in sura Al-Isra in the Quran and its surroundings are addressed in the Quran as "the holy land". Muslim tradition as recorded in the ahadith identifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem. The first Muslims did not pray toward Kaaba, but toward Jerusalem (this was the qibla for 13 years): the qibla was switched to Kaaba later on to fulfill the order of Allah of praying in the direction of Kaaba (Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:144–150). Another reason for its significance is its connection with the Miʿrāj,^[113] where, according to traditional Muslim, Muhammad ascended through the Seven heavens on a winged mule named Buraq, guided by the Archangel Gabriel, beginning from the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, in modern times under the Dome of the Rock.^[114]^[115]

Significance of Abraham

Even though members of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not all claim Abraham as an ancestor, some members of these religions have tried to claim him as exclusively theirs.^[116]

For Jews, Abraham is the founding patriarch of the children of Israel. God promised Abraham: "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you."{{Bibleref2c|Gen.|12:2}} With Abraham, God entered into "an everlasting covenant throughout the ages to be God to you and to your offspring to come".{{Bibleref2c|Gen.|17:7}} It is this covenant that makes Abraham and his descendants children of the covenant. Similarly, converts, who join the covenant, are all identified as sons and daughters of Abraham.{{Citation needed|date = April 2018}}

Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor or patriarch (referred to as Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו in Hebrew) "Abraham our father") to whom God made several promises: chiefly, that he would have numberless descendants, who would receive the land of Canaan (the "Promised Land"). According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was the first post-Flood prophet to reject idolatry through rational analysis, although Shem and Eber carried on the tradition from Noah.^[117]^[118]

Christian commentators have a tendency to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianity subsequent to, and sometimes rather than (as in supersessionism), being applied to Judaism, whose adherents rejected Jesus. They argue this on the basis that just as Abraham as a Gentile (before he was circumcised) "believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness" {{bibleref2c|Gen.|15:6}} (cf. Rom. 4:3, James 2:23), "those who have faith are children of Abraham" {{bibleref2c|Gal.|3:7}} (see also John 8:39). This is most fully developed in Paul's theology where all who believe in God are spiritual descendants of Abraham.{{bibleref2c|Rom.|4:20}} {{bibleref2c|Gal.|4:9}}^[121] However, with regards to {{Biblesource|Rom.|4:20}} and {{Biblesource|Gal.|4:9}}, in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as the "sons of God"{{bibleref2c|Gal.|4:26}} rather than "children of Abraham".^[122]

For Muslims, Abraham is a prophet, the "messenger of God" who stands in the line from Adam to Muhammad, to whom God gave revelations,{{Cite quran|4|163}}, who "raised the foundations of the House" (i.e., the Kaaba){{Cite quran|2|127}} with his first son, Isma'il, a symbol of which is every mosque.^[123] Ibrahim (Abraham) is the first in a genealogy for Muhammad. Islam considers Abraham to be "one of the first Muslims" (Surah 3)—the first monotheist in a world where monotheism was lost, and the community of those faithful to God,^[124] thus being referred to as ابونا ابراهيم or "Our Father Abraham", as well as Ibrahim al-Hanif or "Abraham the Monotheist". Also, the same as Judaism, Islam believes that Abraham rejected idolatry through logical reasoning. Abraham is also recalled in certain details of the annual Hajj pilgrimage.^[125]

Differences

God

The Abrahamic God is conceived of as eternal, omnipotent, omniscient and as the creator of the universe. God is further held to have the properties of holiness, justice, omnibenevolence and omnipresence. Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is also transcendent, but at the same time personal and involved, listening to prayer and reacting to the actions of his creatures.

In Jewish theology, God is strictly monotheistic. God is an absolute one, indivisible and incomparable being who is the ultimate cause of all existence. Jewish tradition teaches that the true aspect of God is incomprehensible and unknowable and that it is only God's revealed aspect that brought the universe into existence, and interacts with mankind and the world. In Judaism, the one God of Israel is the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who is the guide of the world, delivered Israel from slavery in Egypt, and gave them the 613 Mitzvot at Mount Sinai as described in the Torah.

The national god of the Israelites has a proper name, written YHWH ({{Hebrew name|יְהֹוָה|Yehovah|Yəhōwāh}}) in the Hebrew Bible. The name YHWH is a combination of the future, present, and past tense of the verb "howa" ({{lang-he|הוה}}) meaning "to be" and translated literally means "The self-existent One". A further explanation of the name was given to Moses when YHWH stated Eheye Asher Eheye ({{lang-he|אהיה אשר אהיה}}) "I will be that I will be", the name relates to God as God truly is, God's revealed essence, which transcends the universe. It also represents God's compassion towards the world. In Jewish tradition another name of God is Elohim, relating to the interaction between God and the universe, God as manifest in the physical world, it designates the justice of God, and means "the One who is the totality of powers, forces and causes in the universe".

In Christian theology, God is the eternal being who created and preserves the world. Christians believe God to be both transcendent and immanent (involved in the world).^[126]^[127] Early Christian views of God were expressed in the Pauline Epistles and the early{{refn|group="n"|Perhaps even pre-Pauline creeds.}} creeds, which proclaimed one God and the divinity of Jesus.

Around the year 200, Tertullian formulated a version of the doctrine of the Trinity which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to the later definitive form produced by the Ecumenical Council of 381.^[128]^[129] Trinitarians, who form the large majority of Christians, hold it as a core tenet of their faith.^[130]^[131] Nontrinitarian denominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways.^[132]

The theology of the attributes and nature of God has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with Irenaeus writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things".^[133] In the 8th century, John of Damascus listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted.^[134] As time passed, theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the Lord's Prayer, stating that the Father is in Heaven), others based on theological reasoning.^[135]^[136]

In Islamic theology, God ({{lang-ar|{{large|الله}}}} {{transl|ar|ALA|Allāh}}) is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence.^[137] Islam emphasizes that God is strictly singular ({{transl|ar|ALA|tawḥīd}})^[138] unique ({{transl|ar|ALA|wāḥid}}) and inherently One ({{transl|ar|ALA|aḥad}}), all-merciful and omnipotent.^[139] According to Islamic teachings, God exists without place^[140] and according to the Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things."^[141] God, as referenced in the Quran, is the only God.^[142]^[143] Islamic tradition also describes the 99 names of God. These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian.

Islamic belief in God is distinct from Christianity in that God has no progeny. This belief is summed up in chapter 112 of the Quran titled Al-Ikhlas, which states "Say, he is Allah (who is) one, Allah is the Eternal, the Absolute. He does not beget nor was he begotten. Nor is there to Him any equivalent".{{cite quran|112|1|4}}

Scriptures

All these religions rely on a body of scriptures, some of which are considered to be the word of God—hence sacred and unquestionable—and some the work of religious men, revered mainly by tradition and to the extent that they are considered to have been divinely inspired, if not dictated, by the divine being.

The sacred scriptures of Judaism are the Tanakh, a Hebrew acronym standing for Torah (Law or Teachings), Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). These are complemented by and supplemented with various (originally oral) traditions: Midrash, the Mishnah, the Talmud and collected rabbinical writings. The Tanakh (or Hebrew Bible) was composed between 1,400 BCE, and 400 BCE by Jewish prophets, kings, and priests.

The Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular is considered holy, down to the last letter: transcribing is done with painstaking care. An error in a single letter, ornamentation or symbol of the 300,000+ stylized letters that make up the Hebrew Torah text renders a Torah scroll unfit for use; hence the skills of a Torah scribe are specialist skills, and a scroll takes considerable time to write and check.

The sacred scriptures of most Christian groups are the Old Testament and the New Testament. Latin Bibles originally contained 73 books; however, 7 books, collectively called the Apocrypha or Deuterocanon depending on one's opinion of them, were removed by Martin Luther due to a lack of original Hebrew sources, and now vary on their inclusion between denominations. Greek Bibles contain additional materials.

The New Testament comprises four accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus (the Four Gospels), as well as several other writings (the epistles) and the Book of Revelation. They are usually considered to be divinely inspired, and together comprise the Christian Bible.

The vast majority of Christian faiths (including Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and most forms of Protestantism) recognize that the Gospels were passed on by oral tradition, and were not set to paper until decades after the resurrection of Jesus and that the extant versions are copies of those originals. The version of the Bible considered to be most valid (in the sense of best conveying the true meaning of the word of God) has varied considerably: the Greek Septuagint, the Syriac Peshitta, the Latin Vulgate, the English King James Version and the Russian Synodal Bible have been authoritative to different communities at different times.

The sacred scriptures of the Christian Bible are complemented by a large body of writings by individual Christians and councils of Christian leaders (see canon law). Some Christian churches and denominations consider certain additional writings to be binding; other Christian groups consider only the Bible to be binding (sola scriptura).

Islam's holiest book is the Quran, comprising 114 Suras ("chapters of the Qur'an"). However, Muslims also believe in the religious texts of Judaism and Christianity in their original forms, albeit not the current versions. According to the Quran (and mainstream Muslim belief), the verses of the Quran were revealed by God through the Archangel Jibrail to Muhammad on separate occasions. These revelations were written down and also memorized by hundreds of companions of Muhammad. These multiple sources were collected into one official copy. After the death of Mohammed, Quran was copied on several copies and Caliph Uthman provided these copies to different cities of Islamic Empire.

The Quran mentions and reveres several of the Israelite prophets, including Moses and Jesus, among others (see also: Prophets of Islam). The stories of these prophets are very similar to those in the Bible. However, the detailed precepts of the Tanakh and the New Testament are not adopted outright; they are replaced by the new commandments accepted as revealed directly by God (through Gabriel) to Muhammad and codified in the Quran.

Like the Jews with the Torah, Muslims consider the original Arabic text of the Quran as uncorrupted and holy to the last letter, and any translations are considered to be interpretations of the meaning of the Quran, as only the original Arabic text is considered to be the divine scripture.^[144]

Like the Rabbinic Oral Law to the Hebrew Bible, the Quran is complemented by the Hadith, a set of books by later authors recording the sayings of the prophet Muhammad. The Hadith interpret and elaborate Qur'anic precepts. Islamic scholars have categorized each Hadith at one of the following levels of authenticity or isnad: genuine (sahih), fair (hasan) or weak (da'if).^[145]

By the 9th century, six major Hadith collections were accepted as reliable to Sunni Muslims.

Shia Muslims, however, refer to other authenticated hadiths instead.^[146] They are known collectively as The Four Books.

The Hadith and the life story of Muhammad (sira) form the Sunnah, an authoritative supplement to the Quran. The legal opinions of Islamic jurists (Faqīh) provide another source for the daily practice and interpretation of Islamic tradition (see Fiqh.)

The Quran contains repeated references to the "religion of Abraham" (see Suras 2:130,135; 3:95; 6:123,161; 12:38; 16:123; 22:78). In the Quran, this expression refers specifically to Islam; sometimes in contrast to Christianity and Judaism, as in Sura 2:135, for example: 'They say: "Become Jews or Christians if ye would be guided (to salvation)." Say thou (O Muslims): "Nay! (I would rather) the Religion of Abraham the True, and he joined not gods with God." ' In the Quran, Abraham is declared to have been a Muslim (a hanif, more accurately a "primordial monotheist"), not a Jew nor a Christian (Sura 3:67).

Eschatology

In the major Abrahamic religions, there exists the expectation of an individual who will herald the time of the end or bring about the Kingdom of God on Earth; in other words, the Messianic prophecy. Judaism awaits the coming of the Jewish Messiah; the Jewish concept of Messiah differs from the Christian concept in several significant ways, despite the same term being applied to both. The Jewish Messiah is not seen as a "god", but as a mortal man who by his holiness is worthy of that description. His appearance is not the end of history, rather it signals the coming of the world to come.

Christianity awaits the Second Coming of Christ, though Full Preterists believe this has already happened. Islam awaits both the second coming of Jesus (to complete his life and die) and the coming of Mahdi (Sunnis in his first incarnation, Shia as the return of Muhammad al-Mahdi).

Most Abrahamic religions agree that a human being comprises the body, which dies, and the soul, which is capable of remaining alive beyond human death and carries the person's essence, and that God will judge each person's life accordingly after death. The importance of this and the focus on it, as well as the precise criteria and end result, differ between religions.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

Judaism's views on the afterlife ("the Next World") are quite diverse. This can be attributed to the fact that although there clearly are traditions in the Hebrew Bible of an afterlife (see Naboth and the Witch of Endor), Judaism focuses on this life and how to lead a holy life to please God, rather than future reward.

Christians have more diverse and definite teachings on the end times and what constitutes afterlife. Most Christian approaches either include different abodes for the dead (Heaven, Hell, Limbo, Purgatory) or universal reconciliation because all souls are made in the image of God. A small minority teach annihilationism, the doctrine that those persons who are not reconciled to God simply cease to exist.

In Islam, God is said to be "Most Compassionate and Most Merciful" (Quran 1:2, as well as the start of all suras but one). However, God is also "Most Just"; Islam prescribes a literal Hell for those who disobey God and commit gross sin. Those who obey God and submit to God will be rewarded with their own place in Paradise. While sinners are punished with fire, there are also many other forms of punishment described, depending on the sin committed; Hell is divided into numerous levels.

Those who worship and remember God are promised eternal abode in a physical and spiritual Paradise. Heaven is divided into eight levels, with the highest level of Paradise being the reward of those who have been most virtuous, the prophets, and those killed while fighting for Allah (martyrs).

Upon repentance to God, many sins can be forgiven, on the condition they are not repeated, as God is supremely merciful. Additionally, those who believe in God, but have led sinful lives, may be punished for a time, and then eventually released into Paradise. If anyone dies in a state of Shirk (i.e. associating God in any way, such as claiming that He is equal with anything or denying Him), this is not pardonable—he or she will stay forever in Hell.

Once a person is admitted to Paradise, this person will abide there for eternity.^[147]

Worship and religious rites

Worship, ceremonies and religion-related customs differ substantially among the Abrahamic religions. Among the few similarities are a seven-day cycle in which one day is nominally reserved for worship, prayer or other religious activities—Shabbat, Sabbath, or jumu'ah; this custom is related to the biblical story of Genesis, where God created the universe in six days and rested in the seventh.

Orthodox Judaism practice is guided by the interpretation of the Torah and the Talmud. Before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, Jewish priests offered sacrifices there two times daily; since then, the practice has been replaced, until the Temple is rebuilt, by Jewish men being required to pray three times daily, including the chanting of the Torah, and facing in the direction of Jerusalem's Temple Mount. Other practices include circumcision, dietary laws, Shabbat, Passover, Torah study, Tefillin, purity and others. Conservative Judaism, Reform Judaism and the Reconstructionist movement all move away, in different degrees, from the strict tradition of the law.

Jewish women's prayer obligations vary by denomination; in contemporary Orthodox practice, women do not read from the Torah and are only required to say certain parts of these daily services.

All versions of Judaism share a common, specialized calendar, containing many festivals. The calendar is lunisolar, with lunar months and a solar year (an extra month is added every second or third year to allow the shorter lunar year to "catch up" to the solar year). All streams observe the same festivals, but some emphasize them differently. As is usual with its extensive law system, the Orthodox have the most complex manner of observing the festivals, while the Reform pay more attention to the simple symbolism of each one.

Christian worship varies from denomination to denomination. Individual prayer is usually not ritualised, while group prayer may be ritual or non-ritual according to the occasion. During church services, some form of liturgy is frequently followed. Rituals are performed during sacraments, which also vary from denomination to denomination and usually include Baptism and Communion, and may also include Confirmation, Confession, Last Rites and Holy Orders.

Catholic worship practice is governed by the Roman Missal and other documents. Individuals, churches and denominations place different emphasis on ritual—some denominations consider most ritual activity optional, see Adiaphora, particularly since the Protestant Reformation.

The followers of Islam (Muslims) are to observe the Five Pillars of Islam. The first pillar is the belief in the oneness of Allah, and in Muhammad as his final and most perfect prophet. The second is to pray five times daily (salat) towards the direction (qibla) of the Kaaba in Mecca. The third pillar is almsgiving (Zakah), a portion of one's wealth given to the poor or to other specified causes, which means the giving of a specific share of one's wealth and savings to persons or causes, as is commanded in the Quran and elucidated as to specific percentages for different kinds of income and wealth in the hadith. The normal share to be paid is two and a half percent of one's earnings: this increases if labour was not required, and increases further if only capital or possessions alone were required (i.e. proceeds from renting space), and increases to 50% on "unearned wealth" such as treasure-finding, and to 100% on wealth that is considered haram, as part of attempting to make atonement for the sin, such as that gained through financial interest (riba).

Fasting (sawm) during the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar, Ramadan, is the fourth pillar of Islam, to which all Muslims after the age of puberty in good health (as judged by a Muslim doctor to be able fast without incurring grave danger to health: even in seemingly obvious situations, a "competent and upright Muslim physician" is required to agree), that are not menstruating are bound to observe—missed days of the fast for any reason must be made up, unless there be a permanent illness, such as diabetes, that prevents a person from ever fasting. In such a case, restitution must be made by feeding one poor person for each day missed.

Finally, Muslims are also required, if physically able, to undertake a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one's life: it is strongly recommended to do it as often as possible, preferably once a year. Only individuals whose financial position and health are severely insufficient are exempt from making Hajj (e.g. if making Hajj would put stress on one's financial situation, but would not end up in homelessness or starvation, it is still required). During this pilgrimage, the Muslims spend three to seven days in worship, performing several strictly defined rituals, most notably circumambulating the Kaaba among millions of other Muslims and the "stoning of the devil" at Mina.

At the end of the Hajj, the heads of men are shaved, sheep and other halal animals, notably camels, are slaughtered as a ritual sacrifice by bleeding out at the neck according to a strictly prescribed ritual slaughter method similar to the Jewish kashrut, to commemorate the moment when, according to Islamic tradition, Allah replaced Abraham's son Ishmael (contrasted with the Judaeo-Christian tradition that Isaac was the intended sacrifice) with a sheep, thereby preventing human sacrifice. The meat from these animals is then distributed locally to needy Muslims, neighbours and relatives. Finally, the hajji puts off ihram and the hajj is complete.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

Circumcision

Judaism practices circumcision for males as a matter of religious obligation at the age of 8 days old, as does Islam as part of Sunnah.

Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents have low circumcision rates, while both religious and non-religious circumcision is common in many predominantly Christian countries such as the United States,^[159] and the Philippines, Australia,^[160] and Canada, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Nigeria, and Kenya, and many other African Christian countries,^[161]^[162] Circumcision is near universal in the Christian countries of Oceania.^[163] Coptic Christianity and Ethiopian Orthodoxy and Eritrean Orthodoxy still observe male circumcision and practice circumcision as a rite of passage.^[157]^[164] Male circumcision is also widely practiced among Christians from South Korea, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, and North Africa. (See also aposthia.)

Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the fitrah, or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation.^[165]

Food restrictions

Judaism and Islam have strict dietary laws, with permitted food known as kosher in Judaism, and halal in Islam. These two religions prohibit the consumption of pork; Islam prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages of any kind. Halal restrictions can be seen as a modification of the kashrut dietary laws, so many kosher foods are considered halal; especially in the case of meat, which Islam prescribes must be slaughtered in the name of God. Hence, in many places, Muslims used to consume kosher food. However, some foods not considered kosher are considered halal in Islam.^[166]

With rare exceptions, Christians do not consider the Old Testament's strict food laws as relevant for today's church; see also Biblical law in Christianity. Most Protestants have no set food laws, but there are minority exceptions.^[167]

The Roman Catholic Church believes in observing abstinence and penance. For example, all Fridays through the year and the time of Lent are penitential days.^[168] The law of abstinence requires a Catholic from 14 years of age until death to abstain from eating meat on Fridays in honor of the Passion of Jesus on Good Friday. The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops obtained the permission of the Holy See for Catholics in the U.S. to substitute a penitential, or even a charitable, practice of their own choosing.^[169] Eastern Rite Catholics have their own penitential practices as specified by the Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches.

The Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) embraces numerous Old Testament rules and regulations such as tithing, Sabbath observance, and Jewish food laws. Therefore, they do not eat pork, shellfish, or other foods considered unclean under the Old Covenant. The "Fundamental Beliefs" of the SDA state that their members "are to adopt the most healthful diet possible and abstain from the unclean foods identified in the Scriptures".{{Bibleref2c|Leviticus|11:1–47}} ^{among others}^[170]

In the Christian Bible, the consumption of strangled animals and of blood was forbidden by Apostolic Decree{{Bibleref2c|Acts|15:19–21}} and are still forbidden in the Greek Orthodox Church, according to German theologian Karl Josef von Hefele, who, in his Commentary on Canon II of the Second Ecumenical Council held in the 4th century at Gangra, notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of Gangra, the rule of the Apostolic Synod [the Council of Jerusalem of Acts 15] with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show." He also writes that "as late as the eighth century, Pope Gregory the Third, in 731, forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days."^[171]

Jehovah's Witnesses abstain from eating blood and from blood transfusions based on {{bibleref2|Acts|15:19–21}}.

Sabbath observance

Sabbath in the Bible is a weekly day of rest and time of worship. It is observed differently in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam and informs a similar occasion in several other Abrahamic faiths. Though many viewpoints and definitions have arisen over the millennia, most originate in the same textual tradition.

Proselytism

Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit missionaries since the end of the Second Temple era. Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a set of moral imperatives that, according to the Talmud, were given by God^[173] as a binding set of laws for the "children of Noah"—that is, all of humanity.^[174]^[175] It is believed that as much as ten percent of the Roman Empire followed the Judaism either as fully ritually obligated Jews or the simpler rituals required of non-Jewish members of that faith.^[176]

Christianity encourages evangelism. Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send missionaries to non-Christian communities throughout the world. See also Great Commission. Forced conversions to Catholicism have been alleged at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited allegations are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the Crusades; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the Spanish Inquisition, where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by Hernán Cortés. Forced conversions to Protestantism may have occurred as well, notably during the Reformation, especially in England and Ireland (see recusancy and Popish plot).

Forced conversions are condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to Pope Paul VI, "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."^[178] The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fight anti-Semitism.^[179]

Dawah is an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life.

Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah. Mosques and other Islamic centers sometimes spread Da'wah actively, similar to evangelical churches. Others consider being open to the public and answering questions to be Da'wah. Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding their knowledge can also be considered Da'wah.

In Islamic theology, the purpose of Da‘wah is to invite people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments of God as expressed in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, as well as to inform them about Muhammad. Da‘wah produces converts to Islam, which in turn grows the size of the Muslim Ummah, or community of Muslims.

Dialogue between Abrahamic religions

This section reports on writings and talks which describe or advocate dialogue between the Abrahamic religions.

In 1997, Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi claims to have met Jesus in New Mexico.^[180] Since then he has exalted God's love above all religious differences. He describes the situation in this way: "A Muslim says, 'I am superior to all.' A Jew declares, 'I am even better than the Muslim.' And a Christian says, 'I am greater than both the Muslim and the Jew, and the rest of the religions, because I am the nation of God's Son.'" However, Gohar Shahi himself "declares that superior and best of all is the one who possesses God's love in his heart, in spite of his indifference to any religion".^[181]

In 2003, a book called Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism contains a chapter by Amir Hussain on "Muslims, Pluralism, and Interfaith Dialogue" which he shows how interfaith dialogue has been an integral part of Islam from its beginning. From his "first revelation" for the rest of his life, Muhammad was "engaged in interfaith dialogue." Islam would not have spread without "interfaith dialogue."^[182]

Hussain gives an early example of "the importance of pluralism and interfaith dialogue" to Islam. When some of Muhammad's followers suffered "physical persecution" in Mecca, he sent them to Abyssinia, a Christian nation, where they were "welcomed and accepted" by the Christian king. Another example is Córdoba, Andalusia in Muslim Spain, in the ninth and tenth centuries. Córdoba was "one of the most important cities in the history of the world". In "Christians and Jews were involved in the Royal Court and the intellectual life of the city." Thus, there is "a history of Muslims, Jews, Christians, and other religious traditions living together in a pluralistic society."^[183]

Turning to the present, Hussain says that one of the challenges faced by Muslims now is the conflicting passages in the Qur̀an some of which support interfaith "bridge-building," but others can be used "justify mutual exclusion."

The 2007 book Trialogue: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Dialogue puts the importance of interfaith dialogue starkly: "We human beings today face a stark choice: dialogue or death!"^[185]

The Trialogue book gives four reasons why the three Abrahamic religions should engage in dialogue:^[186]

In 2010, Pope Benedict XVI spoke about "Interreligious dialogue." He said that "the Church's universal nature and vocation require that she engage in dialogue with the members of other religions." For the Abrahamic religions, this "dialogue is based on the spiritual and historical bonds uniting Christians to Jews and Muslims." It is dialogue "grounded in the sacred Scriptures" and "defined in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen Gentium and in the Declaration on the Church's Relation to Non-Christian Religions Nostra Aetate. The Pope concluded with a prayer: "May Jews, Christians and Muslims . . . give the beautiful witness of serenity and concord between the children of Abraham."^[187]

In the 2011 book Learned Ignorance: Intellectual Humility Among Jews, Christians and Muslims, the three editors address the question of "why engage in interreligious dialogue; its purpose?":

In 2011, TED broadcast a 10-minute program about "Breaking the Taboos of Interfaith Dialogue" with Rabbi Ted Falcon (Jewish), Pastor Don Mackenzie (Christian), and Imam Jamal Rahman (Muslim) collectively known as The Interfaith Amigos See their TED program [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tPnZArtsG_c by clicking here.]

In 2012, a PhD thesis Dialogue Between Christians, Jews and Muslims argues that "the paramount need is for barriers against non-defensive dialogue conversations between Christians, Jews, and Muslims to be dismantled to facilitate the development of common understandings on matters that are deeply divisive." As of 2012, the thesis says that this has not been done.^[191]

In 2015, Cardinal Kurt Koch, the President of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity and who is "responsible for the Church's dialogue with the Jewish people," was interviewed in 2015. He noted that the Church is already engaged in "bilateral talks with Jewish and Muslim religious leaders." However, he said that it is too early for "trialogue" talks among the three Abrahamic religions. Yet, Koch added, "we hope that we can go in this [direction] in future."^[192]

In 2016, a 26-minute interview with Professor Omid Safi, a Muslim and Director of the Duke Islamic Studies Center, was posted on YouTube.com. In it, Safi said that his life had been trying to combine "love and tenderness" which are the "essence of being human" with "social justice."^[193]

Violent conflicts

Between Abrahamic religions

In most of their common history, the three Abrahamic religions have been "ignorant about each other, or worse, especially in the case of Christians and Muslims, attacked each other." In the La Convivencia (The Coexistence) in the 14th and 15th centuries, Muslims, Christians and Jews co-existed in relative peace, but, otherwise, there has been "very little genuine dialogue" between believers in these Abrahamic religions. They have "kept their distance from one another, or were in conflict. . . there has been very little genuine dialogue."^[194] An aspect La Convivencia is shown in a six-minute video [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y7_GT2yqUAQ Cities of Light] that documents collaboration between Spanish Jewish, Muslim and Christian scientists in 12th century Spain. It features the works of Maimonides (Jewish philosopher) and Averroes (Muslim philosopher).

Between branches of the same Abrahamic religion

Between Abrahamic religions and non-adherents

See also

Notes

1. ^{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Philosophy of Religion |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/497132/philosophy-of-religion |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=24 June 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721151923/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/497132/philosophy-of-religion |archivedate=21 July 2010 |deadurl=no}}
2. ^C.J. Adams Classification of religions: Geographical. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Retrieved 15 May 2013
3. ^{{cite journal|last1=Atzmon|first1=G.|last2=Hao|first2=L.|last3=Pe'er|first3=I.|display-authors=etal|date=June 2010|title=Abraham's children in the genome era: major Jewish diaspora populations comprise distinct genetic clusters with shared Middle Eastern Ancestry|journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet.|volume=86|issue=6|pages=850–9|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015|pmc=3032072|pmid=20560205}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=fuczEUuOt6UC&pg=PA274&lpg=PA273&ots=NIV1rBL9eA&focus=] Israelite religion has its origins in Canaanite religions of the Bronze Age, it became distinct from other Canaanite religions in Iron Age I due to a focus on the monolatristic worship of Yahweh. Judaism likely became fully monotheistic in the 6th century BCE (Iron Age II).[https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kA6eaz7hsC&pg=PA224&dq]
4. ^¹{{harvnb|Massignon|1949|pp=20–23}}
5. ^¹{{harvnb|Smith|1998|p=276}}
6. ^¹{{harvnb|Derrida|2002|p=3}}
7. ^{{cite web |title=Introduction to Judaism Classroom Materials |publisher=Jewish Museum of Maryland |year=2007 |url=http://www.jhsm.org/sites/default/files/IntroductiontoJudaismcurriculum2007_000.pdf |accessdate=19 September 2009}}
8. ^{{cite book|last=Obeid|first=Anis|title=The Druze & Their Faith in Tawhid|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FejqBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT1|accessdate=27 May 2017|year=2006|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-5257-1|page=1}}
9. ^{{cite book |last1= Onyeakor |first1= Joachim |title= Did We Create God? |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Tbn5AAAAQBAJ |publisher= Xlibris Corporation |publication-date= 2012 |isbn= 9781477136973 |accessdate=10 January 2015 |quote= Abrahamic religions (Christianity encompassing Anglican, Catholic, evangelical, Jehovah's Witnesses, Latter-day Saints, Orthodox, Pentecostal (having more than thousand denominations), Islam, Judaism, Rastafari movement, Babism, Baha'i Faith, Gnosticism, Mandaeans and Sabians, and Samaritanism)|date= 16 August 2012 }}
10. ^* {{cite web |title=Why 'Abrahamic'? |publisher= Lubar Institute for Religious Studies at U of Wisconsin |url= http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html |accessdate=3 March 2012}}* {{cite journal |last=Lawson |first=Todd |editor-last=Cusack |editor-first= Carole M. |editor2-last=Hartney |editor2-first=Christopher |title=Baha'i Religious History |journal=Journal of Religious History |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=463–470 |date=13 December 2012 |url=http://bahai-library.com/lawson_bahai_religious_history |jstor= |issn=1467-9809 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9809.2012.01224.x |accessdate=5 September 2013 }}* {{Cite journal |last= Collins |first= William P. |title=Review of: The Children of Abraham : Judaism, Christianity, Islam / F. E. Peters. – New ed. – Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 2004 |journal= Library Journal |volume=129 |issue=14 |pages=157, 160 |date=1 September 2004 |url=http://www.hclib.org/pub/bookspace/discuss/?bib=1061320&theTab=Reviews |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927174736/http://www.hclib.org/pub/bookspace/discuss/?bib=1061320&theTab=Reviews |archivedate=27 September 2013 |accessdate=13 September 2013}}
11. ^The numbers, based on upper bounds, do not add to 100%. {{cite web |last=Hunter |first=Preston |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |publisher=Adherents.com}}
12. ^{{cite web |title= Worldwide Adherents of All Religions by Six Continental Areas, Mid-2002 |url= http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911 |work= Encyclopædia Britannica |year= 2002 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070312004028/http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911|archivedate= 12 March 2007 |deadurl= yes|accessdate= 15 September 2014}}
13. ^{{cite web |title=FIELD LISTING :: RELIGIONS |work=World Factbook |publisher=CIA |year=2013 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |accessdate=9 September 2013}}
14. ^{{cite book |last=Barrett |first=David A. |title=World Christian Encyclopedia |url=http://www.bible.ca/global-religion-statistics-world-christian-encyclopedia.htm|year=2001|page=4}}
15. ^The Quran, albaqarah; v. 135
16. ^Scherman, pp. 34–35.
17. ^Saheeh al-Bukharee, Book 55, hadith no. 584; Book 56, hadith no. 710
18. ^{{Cite web |title=Part Four – On the Origin, Powers and Conditions of Man |url=http://www.bahai-library.com/writings/abdulbaha/saq/57.html |website=Bahai-library.com |accessdate=5 September 2015}}
19. ^Greenstreet, p. 95.
20. ^{{cite web |url=http://home.fau.edu/aberger/web/bio.htm |title=Dr. Alan L. Berger |website=Florida Atlantic University}}
21. ^Alan L. Berger, ed., Trialogue and Terror: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam after 9/11 (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2012), xiii.
22. ^Aaron W. Hughes, Abrahamic Religions: On the Uses and Abuses of History (Oxford University Press, 2012), 3–4, 7–8, 17, 32.
23. ^Pavlac, Brian A (2010). A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities. Chapter 6.
24. ^Religions » Islam » Islam at a glance, BBC, 5 August 2009.
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41. ^¹{{Harvnb |Smith |2008 |p=106}}
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47. ^This has been the standard term which the modern followers of Bábism have adopted in order to identify themselves, however it has not been popular within scholarship, modern and contemporary to the religion's founders, the majority of scholars—such as Browne for instance—choosing to refer to the religion as Bábism or the Bábí Faith
48. ^Varnava, Andrekos, Nicholas Coureas, and Marina Elia, eds. The Minorities of Cyprus: Development patterns and the identity of the internal-exclusion. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009. p. 362
49. ^Báb, The (1848). Persian Bayán, Exordium.
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52. ^Barret (2001), p. 246
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74. ^{{cite book|author1=Léo-Paul Dana|title=Entrepreneurship and Religion|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-84980-632-9|page=314}}
75. ^{{cite book|author1=Terri Morrison|author2=Wayne A. Conaway|title=Kiss, Bow, Or Shake Hands: The Bestselling Guide to Doing Business in More Than 60 Countries|date=24 July 2006|publisher=Adams Media|isbn=978-1-59337-368-9|page=259|edition=illustrated}}
76. ^{{cite book|author=Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin|title=The Druzes: a new study of their history, faith, and society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BprjrZzee5EC&pg=PA108|accessdate=17 March 2011|year=1993|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-09705-6|pages=108–}}
77. ^{{cite book|title=A History of Shi'i Islam| last=Daftary| first= Farhad| publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85773-524-9| date=2013-12-02}}
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79. ^¹{{cite book|title=History of Ancient India | last= Kapur| first= Kamlesh| publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-81-207-4910-8| year= 2010}}
80. ^¹{{cite web |title=Druze |url=http://www.druze.org.au/religion/ |date=2015 |publisher=druze.org.au |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214100847/http://www.druze.org.au/religion/ |archivedate=14 February 2016 }}
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86. ^Jacob is also called Israel, a name the Bible states he was given by God.
87. ^cf. Judaizer, Messianic Judaism
88. ^With several centers, such as Rome, Jerusalem, Alexandria, Thessaloniki and Corinth, Antioch, and later spread outwards, eventually having two main centers in the empire, one for the Western Church and one for the Eastern Church in Rome and Constantinople respectively by the 5th century CE
89. ^Triune God is also called the "Holy Trinity"
90. ^Islam arose specifically in Tihamah city of Mecca and Hejaz city of Medina of Arabia
91. ^The monotheistic view of God in Islam is called tawhid which is essentially the same as the conception of God in Judaism
92. ^Teachings and practices of Muhammad are collectively known as the sunnah, similar to the Judaic concepts of oral law and exegesis, or talmud and midrash
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94. ^Historically, the Bahá'í Faith arose in 19th-century Persia, in the context of Shia Islam, and thus may be classed on this basis as a divergent strand of Islam, placing it in the Abrahamic tradition. However, the Bahá'í Faith considers itself an independent religious tradition, which arose from a Muslim context but also recognizes other traditions. The Bahá'í Faith may also be classed as a new religious movement, due to its comparatively recent origin, or may be considered sufficiently old and established for such classification to not be applicable.
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110. ^{{Cite book |last=Morgenstern |first=Arie |author2=Translated by Joel A. Linsider |title=Hastening redemption: Messianism and the resettlement of the land of Israel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |location=US |page=201 |chapter=Epilogue: Emergence of a Jewish Majority in Jerusalem |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=N4q25b69yQ8C&lpg=PA201&pg=PA201#v=onepage&q&f=false |url=https://books.google.com/?id=N4q25b69yQ8C |isbn=978-0-19-530578-4}}
111. ^{{Cite book |last=Lapidoth |first=Ruth |author2=Moshe Hirsch |title=The Jerusalem question and its resolution: selected documents |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |year=1994 |page=384 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=e93JIwTBjHgC&lpg=PA384&pg=PA384#v=onepage&q |isbn=978-0-7923-2893-3}}
112. ^¹Wilken, Robert L. "From Time Immemorial? Dwellers in the Holy Land." Christian Century, 30 July – 6 August 1986, p. 678.
113. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/384897/Miraj,|title=Mi'raj – Islam|publisher=}}
114. ^"Jerusalem (Britannica)", Jerusalem(Britannica)
115. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/30995/Al-Aqsa-Mosque|title=Al-Aqsa Mosque – mosque, Jerusalem|publisher=}}
116. ^¹{{cite web |title=Why 'Abrahamic'? |publisher=Lubar Institute for Religious Studies at University of Wisconsin - Madison |year=2007 |url=http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html |accessdate=15 September 2014}}
117. ^Shultz, Joseph P. "Two Views of the Patriarchs", in Nahum Norbert Glatzer, Michael A. Fishbane, Paul R. Mendes-Flohr (eds.) (1975). Texts and Responses: Studies presented to Nahum N. Glatzer on the occasion of his 70th birthday by his students. Brill Publishers. pp. 51–52. {{ISBN|9789004039803}}
118. ^Kaplan, Aryeh (1973). "The Jew". The Aryeh Kaplan Reader. Mesorah Publications. p. 161. {{ISBN|9780899061733}}
119. ^Blasi, Turcotte, Duhaime, p. 592.
120. ^{{Cite book | last = MacArthur | first = John | authorlink = John F. MacArthur | chapter = The Hymn of Security | title = The MacArthur New Testament Commentary: Romans | publisher = Moody Press | year = 1996 | location = Chicago | isbn = 978-0-8254-1522-7}}
121. ^"So those who have faith are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith." "In other words, it is not the children by physical descent who are God's children, but it is the children of the promise who are regarded as Abraham's offspring." (Rom. 9:8)
122. ^Bickerman, p. 188cf.
123. ^{{Cite book| last = Leeming | first = David Adams | title = The Oxford companion to world mythology | publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 2005 | location = US | page = 209 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=kQFtlva3HaYC&lpg=PA209&pg=PA209#v=onepage&q| isbn = 978-0-19-515669-0}}
124. ^{{Cite book| last = Fischer | first =Michael M. J.|author2= Mehdi Abedi | title = Debating Muslims: cultural dialogues in postmodernity and tradition | publisher = Univ of Wisconsin Press| year = 1990 | pages = 163–166 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=J5RGlpx0j8sC&lpg=PA163&pg=PA163#v=onepage&q | isbn = 978-0-299-12434-2}}
125. ^{{Cite book| last = Hawting | first = Gerald R. | title = The development of Islamic ritual; Volume 26 of The formation of the classical Islamic world | publisher = Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. | year = 2006 | pages = xviii, xix, xx, xxiii | url = https://books.google.com/?id=oCvf76uT3wMC&lpg=PR18&pg=PR18#v=onepage&q | isbn = 978-0-86078-712-9}}
126. ^Basic Christian Doctrine by John H. Leith (1 January 1992) {{ISBN|0664251927}} pages 55–56
127. ^Introducing Christian Doctrine (2nd Edition) by Millard J. Erickson (1 April 2001) {{ISBN|0801022509}} pages 87–88
128. ^Prestige G.L. Fathers and Heretics SPCK:1963, p. 29
129. ^Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines A & C Black:1965, p. 280
130. ^Mercer Dictionary of the Bible edited by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 2001 {{ISBN|0865543739}} page 935
131. ^Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines A & C Black: 1965, p. 115
132. ^Theology: The Basics by Alister E. McGrath (21 September 2011) {{ISBN|0470656751}} pages 117–120
133. ^Irenaeus of Lyons by Eric Francis Osborn (26 November 2001) {{ISBN|0521800064}} pages 27–29
134. ^Global Dictionary of Theology by William A. Dyrness, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Juan F. Martinez and Simon Chan (10 October 2008) {{ISBN|0830824545}} pages 352–353
135. ^Christian Doctrine by Shirley C. Guthrie (1 July 1994) {{ISBN|0664253687}} pages 111 and 100
136. ^Hirschberger, Johannes. Historia de la Filosofía I, Barcelona: Herder 1977, p. 403
137. ^Gerhard Böwering God and his Attributes, Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān Quran.com, Islam: The Straight Path, Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 22
138. ^John L. Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path, Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 88
139. ^"Allah". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica
140. ^Britannica Encyclopedia, "Islam", p. 3
141. ^{{cite quran|6|103|style=ns}}
142. ^{{cite quran|29|46|style=ns}}
143. ^F. E. Peters, Islam, p. 4, Princeton University Press, 2003
144. ^{{Cite book| author = Baker, Mona |author2= Saldanha, Gabriela | title = Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies | publisher = Routledge | year = 2008 | page = 227 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=eXsDckV5GuMC&lpg=PA227&pg=PA227#v=onepage&q | isbn = 978-0-415-36930-5}}
145. ^{{Cite book| last = ʻUthmān ibn ʻAbd al-Raḥmān Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ al-Shahrazūrī |author2= Eerik Dickinson | title = An Introduction to the Science of Hadith: Kitab Ma'rifat Anwa' 'ilm Al-hadith | publisher = Garnet & Ithaca Press | year = 2006 | page = 5 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=Yq-aprUAyuUC&lpg=PA15&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q | isbn = 978-1-85964-158-3 }}
146. ^{{Cite book| last = Momen | first = Moojan | title = An introduction to Shiʻi Islam: the history and doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism| publisher = Yale University Press | year = 1985 | pages = 173–4 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=zot5IK1csp0C&dq| isbn = 978-0-300-03531-5}}
147. ^{{Cite book|last=al-Misri|first=Ahmad ibn Naqib|title=Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller)|publisher=Amana Publications|year=1994|pages=995–1002|isbn=978-0-915957-72-9|title-link=Nuh Ha Mim Keller}}
148. ^Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism: "According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands, which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition".
149. ^"Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445)". The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
150. ^Catechism of the Catholic Church: Article 5—The Fifth commandment {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629225324/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS |date=29 June 2007 }}. Christus Rex et Redemptor Mundi. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
151. ^Dietzen, John. "The Morality of Circumcision", The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
152. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicdoors.com/faq/qu340.htm|title=Frequently Asked Questions: The Catholic Church and Circumcision.|publisher=}}
153. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons|title=Should Catholics circumcise their sons? – Catholic Answers|website=Catholic.com|access-date=21 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110835/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons|archive-date=22 December 2015|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}
154. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-al |title=The Catechism forbids deliberate mutilation, so why is non-therapeutic circumcision allowed? |accessdate=21 December 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110402/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-al |archivedate=22 December 2015 }}
155. ^{{cite journal |last=Slosar |first=J. P. |first2=D. |last2=O'Brien |year=2003 |title=The Ethics of Neonatal Male Circumcision: A Catholic Perspective |journal=American Journal of Bioethics |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=62–64 |pmid=12859824 |doi=10.1162/152651603766436306 }}
156. ^{{cite book| last = Eugenius IV| first = Pope| authorlink = Pope Eugene IV| editor = Norman P. Tanner | title = Decrees of the ecumenical councils| origyear = 1442 | accessdate = 25 April 2007| series = 2 volumes| year = 1990| publisher = Georgetown University Press| location = Washington, D.C.| isbn = 978-0-87840-490-2| language = Greek, Latin | chapter = Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445): Session 11—4 February 1442; Bull of union with the Copts| chapter-url = http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/FLORENCE.HTM#5| quote = it denounces all who after that time observe circumcision| lccn = 90003209}}
157. ^¹{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Circumcision |encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=Columbia University Press |url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html }}
158. ^{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Gregory |last2=Adams |first2=Kristina |year= 2012 |chapter= Circumcision in the Early Christian Church: The Controversy That Shaped a Continent| chapterurl=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4471-2858-8_26 |editor1-last=Bolnick |editor1-first=David A. |editor2-last=Koyle |editor2-first=Martin |editor3-last=Yosha |editor3-first=Assaf |title=Surgical Guide to Circumcision |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4471-2858-8 |location= London |publisher=Springer |pages=291–298 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4471-2858-8_26 |isbn=978-1-4471-2857-1 |accessdate= 6 April 2014 |subscription=yes}}
159. ^Ray, Mary G. [https://archive.is/20140916071531/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:8IQnea2UK-UJ:http://www.mothersagainstcirc.org/majority.htm&prmd=ivns&strip=1 "82% of the World's Men are Intact"], Mothers Against Circumcision, 1997.
160. ^{{cite journal |last1=Richters |first1=J. |last2=Smith |first2=A. M. |last3=de Visser |first3=R. O. |last4=Grulich |first4=A. E. |last5=Rissel |first5=C. E. |title=Circumcision in Australia: prevalence and effects on sexual health |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=547–54 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16925903 |doi=10.1258/095646206778145730 }}
161. ^{{cite journal |title=The potential impact of male circumcision on HIV in sub-Saharan Africa |last=Williams |first=B. G. |journal=PLoS Med |year=2006 |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e262 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030262 |pmid=16822094 |pmc=1489185|display-authors=etal}}
162. ^{{cite web|title=Questions and answers: NIAID-sponsored adult male circumcision trials in Kenya and Uganda |publisher=National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases |date=December 2006 |url=http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309060025/https://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |archivedate=9 March 2010 }}
163. ^{{cite web| url = http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84| title = Circumcision amongst the Dogon| accessdate = 3 September 2006| year = 2006| publisher = The Non-European Components of European Patrimony (NECEP) Database}}
164. ^{{cite journal|last1=Van Doorn-Harder |first1=Nelly |title=Christianity: Coptic Christianity |journal=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices |date=2006 |volume=1 |url=http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522200028/http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=22 May 2016 }}
165. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html|title=Male Circumcision in Islam|first=Muslim Information Service of|last=Australia|publisher=}}
166. ^"Halal & Healthy: Is Kosher Halal" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823055532/http://www.soundvision.com/info/halalhealthy/halal.kosher.asp |date=23 August 2009 }}, SoundVision.com—Islamic information & products. 5 August 2009.
167. ^Schuchmann, Jennifer. "Does God Care What We Eat?", Today's Christian, January/February 2006. Retrieved 6 August 2009.
168. ^Canon 1250, 1983. The 1983 Code of Canon Law specifies the obligations of Latin Rite Catholic.
169. ^"Fasting and Abstinence", Catholic Online. 6 August 2009.
170. ^"Fundamental Beliefs", No. 22. Christian Behavior. Seventh-Day Adventist Church website. 6 August 2009.
171. ^Schaff, Philip. "Canon II of The Council of Gangra". The Seven Ecumenical Councils. 6 August 2009. Commentary on Canon II of Gangra.
172. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.lds.org/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/89|title=Doctrine and Covenants 89|website=Lds.org}}
173. ^According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry Ben Noah, page 349), most medieval authorities consider that all seven commandments were given to Adam, although Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.
174. ^Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry Ben Noah, introduction) states that after the giving of the Torah, the Jewish people were no longer in the category of the sons of Noah; however, Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) indicates that the seven laws are also part of the Torah, and the Talmud (Bavli, Sanhedrin 59a, see also Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that Gentiles are obligated in, albeit with some differences in the details.
175. ^Compare {{bibleverse||Genesis|9:4–6|HE}}.
176. ^{{cite book |trans-title=The Times Atlas of World History |title=Spectrum–Times Atlas van de Wereldgeschiedenis |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor-last=Barraclough |editor-link=Geoffrey Barraclough |year=1981 |orig-year=1978 |publisher=Het Spectrum |pages=102–103}} {{nl icon}}
177. ^Kornbluth, Doron. Why marry Jewish?. Southfield, MI: Targum Press, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1-56871-250-5}}
178. ^Pope Paul VI. "Declaration on Religious Freedom" {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211202206/http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html |date=11 February 2012 }}, 7 December 1965.
179. ^{{cite news |last1=Pullella |first1=Philip |title=Vatican says Catholics should not try to convert Jews, should fight anti-semitism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210 |accessdate=13 January 2016 |publisher=Reuters |date=10 December 2015}}
180. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.goharshahi.com/|title=Awaited Imam Mehdi (Messiah) Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi -=Gohar Shahi International=-|first=His Holiness Riaz Ahmed Gohar|last=Shahi|publisher=}}
181. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.goharshahi.us/about/|title=Imam Mehdi Gohar Shahi – About Imam Mehdi|first=His Holiness Ra Riaz Gohar|last=Shahi|publisher=}}
182. ^Amir Hussain, "Muslims, Pluralism, and Interfaith Dialogue," in Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism, ed. Omid Safi, 252–253 (Oneworld Publications, 2003).
183. ^Amir Hussain, "Muslims, Pluralism, and Interfaith Dialogue," in Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism, ed. Omid Safi, 253–254 (Oneworld Publications, 2003).
184. ^Amir Hussain, "Muslims, Pluralism, and Interfaith Dialogue," in Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism, ed. Omid Safi, 254 (Oneworld Publications, 2003).
185. ^Leonard Swidler, Khalid Duran, Reuven Firestone, Trialogue: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Dialogue (Twenty-Third Publications, 2007), 1, 7.
186. ^Leonard Swidler, Khalid Duran, Reuven Firestone, Trialogue: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Dialogue (Twenty-Third Publications, 2007), 38.
187. ^{{cite web|url=http://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_ben-xvi_exh_20120914_ecclesia-in-medio-oriente.html|title=Ecclesia in Medio Oriente: Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation on the Church in the Middle East: Communion and Witness (14 September 2012) – BENEDICT XVI|publisher=}}
188. ^James L. Heft, Reuven Firestone, and Omid Safi, Learned Ignorance: Intellectual Humility Among Jews, Christians and Muslims (Oxford University Press, USA, 2011), 301–302.
189. ^James L. Heft, Reuven Firestone, and Omid Safi, editors, Learned Ignorance: Intellectual Humility Among Jews, Christians and Muslims (Oxford University Press, USA, 2011), 305.
190. ^James L. Heft, Reuven Firestone, and Omid Safi, editors, Learned Ignorance: Intellectual Humility Among Jews, Christians and Muslims (Oxford University Press, USA, 2011), 308.
191. ^Ian Rex Fry, Dialogue Between Christians, Jews and Muslims (PhD Thesis, 2012), 37, 333. Retrieved July 3, 2016.
192. ^{{cite web|url=http://en.radiovaticana.va/news/2015/05/22/cardinal_koch_trialogue_among_catholics,_jews,_muslims/1145856|title=Cardinal Koch: Trialogue among Catholics, Jews, Muslims?|publisher=}}
193. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dRX0XlgTvzo |title=Interview with Professor Omid Safi [Eng Subs] |author=Parmida Mostafavi |date=19 April 2016 |website=YouTube}}
194. ^{{cite web|url=http://ifacs.com/the-necessity-of-inter-faith-diplomacy-the-catholicmuslim-dialogue/|title=The Necessity of Inter-Faith Diplomacy: The Catholic/Muslim Dialogue – Institute for Advanced Catholic Studies|publisher=}}
195. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/ja-jn/jewish_wars/bk03.html#Justin|title=Texts on Bar Kochba: Eusebius|author=Eusebius|publisher=livius.org|accessdate=14 September 2014}}
196. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm|title=CHURCH FATHERS: The First Apology (St. Justin Martyr)|website=Newadvent.org|accessdate=1 August 2018}}
197. ^Simon's letter is part of Part III of The Chronicle of Zuqnin, translated by Amir Harrack (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1999), pp. 78–84.
198. ^{{cite web|url=http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/125435|title=What We Choose to Remember: Jerusalem in World History|website=historynewsnetwork.org}}
199. ^{{cite book|author=Luis N. Rivera Pagán | url=https://books.google.com/?id=uKcLAAAAYAAJ | title=A Violent Evangelism: The Political and Religious Conquest of the Americas | work= | publisher=Westminster/John Knox Press | date=1992 |isbn=978-0664253677 | archive-url=https://www.amazon.com/Violent-Evangelism-Political-Religious-Conquest/dp/0664253679 | archive-date=21 July 2017 | access-date=21 July 2017 }}
200. ^{{cite article |author=John F. Schwaller | url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766581/obo-9780199766581-0180.xml | title=The Church in Colonial Latin America | work=Oxford Bibliographies | publisher=Oxford University Press | date=March 2016 |isbn= | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721115518/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766581/obo-9780199766581-0180.xml | archive-date=21 July 2017 | access-date=21 July 2017 }}