“Ages of consent in Europe”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The ages of consent vary by jurisdiction across Europe. The ages of consent are currently set between 14 and 18. The vast majority of countries set their ages in the range of 14 to 16; only four countries, Cyprus (17), Ireland (17), Turkey (18) and Vatican City (18), do not fit into this pattern. The laws can also stipulate the specific activities that are permitted or differentially specify the age at which a given sex can participate. Below is a discussion of the various laws dealing with this subject. The highlighted age is that at which, or above which, an individual can engage in unfettered sexual relations with another who is also at or above that age. In 2014, the self-declared state of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus lifted the ban on sodomy, decriminalizing homosexual sex.^[1] All jurisdictions in Europe have an equal and gender-neutral age limit.

The below is a list of all jurisdictions in Europe as listed in List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe.

International obligations

Neither the European Union nor the Council of Europe have suggested any specific age of consent, and there has not been any effort so far to standardize the age across member states. However, most countries in Europe now have binding legal obligations in regard to the sexual abuse of children under 18. The Lanzarote Convention,^[2] which came into effect in 2011, obligates the countries that ratify it to criminalize certain acts concerning children under 18, such as the involvement of such children in prostitution and pornography. Other acts that must be criminalized include:

"Engaging in sexual activities with a child (child is defined in Article 3 as "person under the age of 18 years") where:

The age of consent is called "the legal age for sexual activities" and must be chosen by states at the age they see fit. (No specific age is recommended.) As of September 2018, the convention has been ratified by 44 states, while another 3 states have signed but not yet ratified the convention.^[3]

In the European Union (EU 28), there is a directive regarding the sexual abuse of children under 18, known as "Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography".^[4]

Albania

Since 2001, the age of consent in Albania is 14, regardless of gender and sexual orientation. In the case of a girl, however, sex is illegal if she is over 14 but has not reached "sexual maturity", as provided by article 100 of the criminal code.^[5]

Andorra

The age of consent in Andorra is 14, as specified by Article 147 of the penal code, which reads: (1) "Whoever carries out a sexual act with a person younger than fourteen years ... shall be punished with imprisonment for between three months and three years." Paragraph 2 states that if the sexual act involves sexual penetration the punishment is three to ten years.^[6]

As specified by Articles 148 and 149, it is illegal - regardless of age - for a person occupying a position of authority or superiority over a person to engage in sexual activity with them, or when it involves the abuse of trust or situation of need or dependence. The penalty is more severe when the subject is below the age of 18.

Armenia

Austria

The general age of consent in Austria is 14, as specified by Section 206^[7] of the penal code. (The term unmündig is specified in Section 74^[8] of the penal code.) Paragraph 4 of Section 206 defines a close-in-age exception of maximum three years.

However, Section 207b^[9] of the penal code contains an exception to the general age of consent: if one of the partners is younger than 16 years of age and "not sufficiently mature to understand the significance of the act", then the act is punishable.

The offence "initiating sexual contacts with minors under 14 through the use of computer system" is punishable by two years' imprisonment (Section 208a Penal Code).

History

The Austrian Criminal Code previously specified 18 as the age of consent for male homosexual sex in which the other partner was aged 14–18, while no equivalent provision existed for heterosexual sexual conduct; this was Section 209 of the Criminal Code. In November 1996, an amendment was put before the Austrian Parliament to remove Section 209; but the vote ended in a draw, and the amendment failed to pass. In July 1998, a similar amendment was put forward; it was voted down by the conservative majority. Section 209 came into force when homosexuality between males became legal in 1971.

On 24 June 2002, the Austrian Constitutional Court ruled that Section 209 was unconstitutional. The Section was later repealed on 14 August 2002. On 9 January 2003, the European Court of Human Rights held, in L & V v Austria, that Section 209 violated Articles 8 and 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights.

Azerbaijan

Belarus

The age of consent in Belarus is 16, as specified by Articles 168 and 169, which read: "Sexual relations, sodomy, lesbian acts or other actions of sexual character of an adult, reached eighteen years of age, with a person who obviously has not reached sixteen years of age, at absence of attributes of the crimes stipulated by articles 166 and 167 present codes, are punished by restriction of freedom of two years to four years or by imprisonment of two years to five years." and "Dissolute actions accomplished by a person, reached eighteen years of age, concerning a person who obviously has not reached sixteen years of age, at absence of attributes of the crimes stipulated by articles 166, 167 and 168 present codes, are punished by arrest of about six months or imprisonment of one year to three years."^[11]

Belgium

The age of consent in Belgium is 16, as specified by Article 372 of the Criminal Code (Code pénal/Strafwetboek), which reads:

"Any indecent assault committed without violence or threat on the person or with the assistance of the person of a child of either sex, aged less than sixteen, shall be punished by imprisonment (of five years to ten years).^[12]^[13]

History

The Belgian Criminal Code previously specified an age of consent of 18 for homosexual sex. This provision - Article 372bis - was added in 1965 and repealed in 1985.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Sexual activity with children younger than 14 is illegal under Article 207, which prohibits sexual acts with a "child", and a "child" is defined in Article 2(8) as a person under 14. However, Article 209 mentions a "juvenile" who is defined in Article 2(9) as a person under 18, although it is not clear if this article refers only to sexual acts performed in view of a minor under 18 or if it can be used also to punish sexual acts performed with the minor:^[14]

Bulgaria

The age of consent in Bulgaria is 14, as specified by Articles 149 and 151 (1). However, Article 151 (2) has a provision for those who are over 14 and do "not understand the characteristics or the importance of the act."

Croatia

The age of consent for all sexual conduct in Croatia under the new Criminal Code in force since 1 January 2013 is 15, regardless of sexual orientation or gender, regulated by Article 158.^[16]

(1) Whoever performs sexual intercourse with a child under fifteen years of age or induces a child to commit sexual intercourse with a third person, shall be liable to a term of imprisonment of one to ten years.

(2) Whoever commits lewd act with a child under fifteen years of age or induces a child to commit lewd act on itself or with a third person, shall be punished by imprisonment for a term between six months and five years.

History

Before the year 2013, the legal age of consent in Croatia was 14. Homosexual acts were illegal until 1977, when Croatia, then as a Yugoslav Federal Republic, changed its Penal Code. Age of consent was equalised in 1998.

Cyprus

The age of consent for all sexual conduct in Cyprus under the 2002 Criminal Code is 17, regardless of sexual orientation or gender.

History

Until 1998, homosexual acts between men were entirely forbidden under Section 171 (1929). In 1989, Alecos Modinos, president of the Cypriot Gay Liberation Movement, brought a case to the European Court of Human Rights. In 1993, the Court held that the prohibition of homosexual acts was a violation of Article 8. In January 1995, the Cypriot Government introduced a Bill in the Cypriot Parliament that would have abolished the ban. Strong opposition from the Orthodox Church meant the Bill stalled when referred to the Parliament's Legal Affairs Committee. The European Commission repeated its warning that Cyprus must follow the Court's ruling. In May 1997, again a government measure to repeal the ban failed because of the strength of the opposition. In April 1998, the Council of Europe set a deadline for compliance of 29 May 1998 and on 21 May 1998, the House of Representatives voted 36 to 8 in favour legalising homosexual acts. However it was set at 18 while heterosexual acts remained at 16.

In 2002, under pressure from the EU^[17] the parliament finally ended the disparate provisions and changed the age of consent to 17 for both heterosexual and homosexual acts, under the revised Criminal Code.^[18]

Akrotiri and Dhekelia

For both of these Sovereign Base Areas (British military enclaves) on the island of Cyprus, the age of consent is 16.

Czech Republic

Additionally, the section of the new Czech penal code 40/2009 Sb. about "crimes against family and children" contains § 202 which criminalizes a "seducing to sexual intercourse" aimed at persons under 18 years with any promise or provide of payment, benefit/privilege or profit for a sexual intercourse, masturbation, exposure or similar behavior. This regulation was added to the old Czechoslovak penal code (140/1961 Sb.) adopted by the Czech Republic as § 217a by the amendment Czech act No. 218/2003 Sb. efficient since 2004 January 1. This also covers cases when there is any kind of trust/dependence, for example, teacher-student, employer-employee, etc.

History

The historic age limit in the Austrian Empire was 14 years by § 128 of the empire Penal Code from 1852.^[19] Homosexual sexual intercourse (as well as intercourses with animals) were generally criminalized as "crime against nature" by § 131. The Austrian Penal Code was not replaced in Czechoslovakia before 1950. The Czechoslovak Penal Code 86/1950 Sb. in § 239 elevated the limit to 15 years. Almost identic regulation contained Czechoslovak penal code 140/1961 Sb., which in § 242 reads: "A person who has coitus with a person younger fifteen (15) years of age or who sexually abuses such a person by other way shall be sentenced to imprisonment for at least one and at most eight years."^[20] The new Czech Penal Code (40/2009 Sb., efficient since 2010 January 1) contents a similar regulation in § 187. Around 2008 and 2009, lowering of the limits of criminal responsibility as well as sexual restriction from 15 to 14 years was proposed by the Ministry of Justice and passed in Parliament within the new Penal Code 40/2009 Sb. efficient since 2010 January 1. Both changes were criticized. Before its efficiency, the amendment act 306/2009 Sb. changed both limits back to 15 years.

Until 1962, homosexual sexual intercourse was illegal in Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovak 140/1961 Sb. Penal Code, introduced in that year, still contained as a crime "Sexual intercourse with a person of the same sex" (§ 244) but affected only persons older 18 years who had intercourse with a person younger than 18 years. Between adults, payment receipt or provision and public nuisance were reasons for criminalization. In 1990, article § 244 was removed in its entirity by the Czechoslovak act 175/2009 Sb. efficient since 2009-07-01.

Denmark

The age of consent in the Kingdom of Denmark is 15^[21] as specified by Section 222:

Section 223, part 1, reads: "Any person who has sexual intercourse with any child under 18, who is said person's adopted child, stepchild or foster child, or who is entrusted to said person for education or upbringing, will be liable to imprisonment for any term not exceeding four years." This applies, e.g., to teachers. Further, part 2 of § 223 establishes that the same punishment is applicable to any person found to have grossly exploited their age- and experience based superiority over a person under the age of 18 to seduce said minor into intercourse.

The laws in the Faroe Islands and Greenland are equivalent although regulated in separate penal codes for these autonomous countries.

History

Male homosexual acts were legalised in Denmark (lesbianism was never illegal) with an age of consent set at 18, after a major reform of the Penal Code in 1930; At the same time, the age of consent for heterosexual acts was raised from 12 to 15. In 1976, the age of consent was harmonized at 15 for all acts {{Citation needed|date=September 2007}}. Sex with a child under the age of 12 results in double punishment, and sex with a minor under 18 is illegal for a person in charge of this child.

Until 1866, "acts against nature" [anal intercourse] were punishable with the stakes. However, until the late 18th century the rule was never used, and, when it came into rule, the convicts were always pardoned to 7 years in jail.{{clarify|date=October 2018}} This became the punishment introduced in the Penal Code 1866, but now only for homosexual acts.

In 1969, Denmark became the first country to legalise pictorial pornography,^[22] but this did not affect laws related to the age of people participating in its production. Consequently, the legal age of consent (15) equaled the limit for pornography produced within the country, but material produced in other countries (where the Danish consent law does not apply) was not covered and therefore legal. In 1980 it became illegal to sell, spread or possess pornography involving children under the age of 15, regardless of its country of origin (Danish Penal Code §235).^[23] The limit was later changed to 18 years, which is the standing law today, although it remains legal for a person over the age of 15 to take their own nude photos, as long as they are only shared with friends (for example with a boyfriend or girlfriend), the receiver explicitly has received the right to possess them, and they are not shared or spread any further.^[23] In the period between the legalisation of pornography and the 1980 amendment to the Danish Penal Code, some companies (infamously Color Climax) exploited the lack of age restrictions on material produced in other countries.^[24]

Estonia

The age of consent in Estonia is 14, as specified by Section 145 (sexual intercourse with a child), which reads: "An adult person who engages in sexual intercourse with a person of less than 14 years of age shall be punished by up to 5 years’ imprisonment."^[25]

Section 141 defines rape as "Sexual intercourse with a person against his or her will by using force or taking advantage of a situation in which the person is not capable of initiating resistance or comprehending the situation"; and Section 147 reads:

History

Until 1992, male homosexual sex was illegal, the Estonian SSR Penal Code, Article 118, forbidding "anal intercourse between men". When regaining independence from USSR in 1991, the age of consent for male homosexual intercourse was set at 16, whereas the age for heterosexual intercourse was 14. The age of consent was harmonized in 2001 when the law was amended, specifying an age of 14 for sexual intercourse.

Finland

The age of consent in Finland is 16, as specified by Section 6(1) (Sexual abuse of a child), which reads: "A person who has sexual intercourse with a child younger than sixteen years of age ... shall be sentenced for sexual abuse of a child to imprisonment for at most four years."

The sexual act may not be punishable if "there is no great difference in the ages or the mental and physical maturity of the persons involved".^[26]

The age is 18 when in connection with a person who has some formal power over the young person, like a school teacher.

History

Until 1971, homosexual acts were prohibited. After decriminalisation, the age of consent was set to 18 for homosexual acts and 16 for heterosexual acts.^[27]

Åland Islands

According to the Åland Treaty, Finnish federal law is applied as the minimum standard. The age of consent is therefore 16.

France

The age of consent in France is 15, as specified by Article 227-25 of the Penal Code, which reads: "The fact of the commission without violence, constraint, threat or surprise of a sexual offence by an adult on the person of a minor under fifteen years of age is punished by five years' imprisonment and a fine of 75,000€."^[29]

Article 227-22 prohibits the "organisation by an adult of meetings involving indecent exposure or sexual relations knowing that minors are present or participating". (Minors refers to under 18s; the text of the article can be subject to interpretation).^[30]

Article 227-22-1 prohibits the "soliciting of a minor under the age of fifteen, or a person pretending to be such minor, for sexual purposes through the use of a computer system".^[31]

Article 227-27 prohibits sexual relations with minors over age 15 (aged 15, 16 or 17) "1° where they are committed by an ascendant or by any other person having a legal or factual authority over the victim; 2° where they are committed by a person abusing the authority conferred by his functions."^[32]

History

Male homosexual acts were illegal until 1791, when the ancient sodomy laws were dropped from the Criminal Code of that year. This continued to be the case under the Napoleonic Code of 1810.

The age of consent was set at 11 in 1832 and at 13 in 1863. In 1942, the age of consent for homosexual acts was set at 21, while for heterosexual acts it was still 13. The latter was increased to 15 in 1945. In 1974, the age for homosexual acts was lowered to 18. In 1982, it was lowered to 15, in line with that for heterosexual acts.

Georgia

The age of consent in Georgia is 16 as per Georgian Penal Code Art. 140, and Art. 141.^[33]

Germany

The age of consent in Germany is 14, as long as a person over the age of 21 does not exploit a 14- to 15-year-old person's lack of capacity for sexual self-determination, in which case a conviction of an individual over the age of 21 requires a complaint from the younger individual; being over 21 and engaging in sexual relations with a minor of that age does not constitute an offense by itself. Otherwise the age of consent is 16, although provisions protecting minors against abuse apply until the age of 18 (under Section 182(1): it is illegal to engage in sexual activity with a person under 18 "by taking advantage of an exploitative situation"^[34]).

This is specified by Sections 176 (Sexual abuse of children) and 182 (Sexual abuse of youths) of the Penal Code, which read:

§ 176: "(1) Whoever commits sexual acts on a person under fourteen (14) years of age (a child) or allows them to be committed on themself by the child, shall be punished by imprisonment from six months to ten years [...]"

§ 180: "(1) Whoever abets the commission of sexual acts of a person under sixteen years of age on or in front of a third person or sexual acts of a third person on a person under sixteen years of age":

shall be punished with imprisonment for not more than three years or a fine. [...]"

§ 182: "(2) A person over twenty-one years of age who abuses a person under sixteen years of age, in that he: 1. commits sexual acts on the person or allows them to be committed on himself by the person; or 2. induces the person to commit sexual acts on a third person or to allow them to be committed on the person by a third person, and thereby exploits the victim's lack of capacity for sexual self-determination, shall be punished with imprisonment for not more than three years or a fine. [...] The act shall only be prosecuted upon complaint, unless the prosecuting authority considers ex officio that it is required to enter the case because of the special public interest therein. [...] The court may dispense with punishment pursuant to these provisions if, in consideration of the conduct of the person against whom the act was directed, the wrongfulness of the act is slight."^[35]

History

The current rules for age of consent in Germany were set following a post-reunification penal law reform in 1994. The ages of 14 and 16 had been relevant since the Criminal Code for the German Empire came into force in 1872: Under § 176, sexual acts with children under 14 were illegal and have been always since. Under § 182, seduction of an "unblemished girl under the age of 16" was prosecuted upon complaint of parents or legal guardian only. In West Germany the latter rule was kept, with minor changes in 1973: Unblemishedness was no longer required, and the court could refrain from punishment if the offender was under 21 years of age. The German Democratic Republic, by contrast, created a new socialist criminal code in 1968. Under § 149, sexual acts with persons of the opposite sex between the ages of 14 and 16 were punishable if the victim's "moral immaturity" was exploited by using "gifts, the promise of benefits or similar" methods of persuasion "to initiate intercourse or actions similar to intercourse".

Male homosexuality had been illegal under § 175 regardless of age since 1872. Female homosexuality was not prosecuted. In West Germany, male homosexuality was legalized in 1969. The age of consent was set to 21 years and reduced to 18 years in 1975. Only men of 18 or older could be offenders and courts could refrain from punishment if the offender was not yet 21. In East Germany, the criminal code was supplemented in 1957 by a provision that allowed the waiving of prosecution if no harm had been done to socialist society by the unlawful act. Concerning § 175, this meant that male homosexual acts were prosecuted only if they involved minors, which meant persons under 18. The new criminal code of 1968 officially legalized homosexuality and in § 151, which now was gender-neutral, criminalized only homosexual acts of adults with minors. In 1987 the GDR supreme court ruled homosexuality was a variant of sexual behaviour just as heterosexuality. In 1989 § 151 was repealed and § 149 amended to include any sexual orientation.

After German reunification, according to the Unification Treaty of 1990, the § 149 code section stayed in force for the territory of the former GDR, and in West Germany, § 175 and § 182 were no longer enacted. West German law makers also saw the need for gender- and sexual-orientation-neutrality, and for rebalancing sexual self-determination with the protection of minors. In the ensuing 1994 reform, the minimum age of 14 for all of Germany was kept, and in building on legal traditions of both states, sexual acts committed by a person above 21 with a minor under 16 involving exploitation of the minor's individual lack of capacity for sexual self-determination were made punishable in new § 182. § 175 was abolished. In general, the need for a complaint from the former West German law was kept, but in the case of special public interest, the offence was made prosecutable ex officio, as had been the case in East German law.^[36]

Greece

The general provision for age of consent in Greece is 15 as specified by Article 339, as well as Articles 337, 348B of the Greek Penal Code. In 2015, along with the legalization of same-sex civil unions, Article 347 which provided a further prohibition of seducing a male under 17 if the actor is a male adult was repealed, therefore equalising age of consent for homosexual acts.^[38]

There are also several other prohibitions regarding positions of authority and acts of lewdness, as specified by Articles 342 and 343. Furthermore, there is a close-in-age exemption of 3 years age difference for indecent acts between persons younger than 15.

Hungary

The age of consent in Hungary is 14. A close-in-age exemption allows sexual acts from age 12 if the older party is under 18.

"The person who has completed eighteenth year has sexual intercourse with a person who has not yet completed his/her fourteenth year, commits a felony and shall be punishable with imprisonment from one year to five years".

"The person who has sexual intercourse with a person who has not yet completed his/her twelfth year, commits a felony and shall be punishable with imprisonment from five years to ten years".^[39]

History

Until 1961 homosexual acts were illegal. After decriminalisation the age of consent for homosexual acts was 20 and remained so until 1978. From then until 1999 the age of consent for such acts was 18, as specified by Section 199. In 2002 the Hungarian Constitutional Court repealed Section 199 and the age of consent for homosexual acts was lowered to 14 in line with heterosexual acts.

Iceland

The age of consent in Iceland is 15, as specified by Section 202 of the Icelandic Penal Code, which reads: "Anyone who has carnal intercourse or other sexual intimacy with a child younger than 15 years shall be subject to imprisonment for at least 1 year and up to 15 years."^[40]^[41]

History

Ireland

The age of consent in Ireland is 17,^[43] in relation to vaginal, oral, or anal sex, and vaginal or anal penetration.^[44] This is the joint highest, with Cyprus, age of consent in the European Union.^[45]

Relevant offences are found in the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2017, which amended the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2006.^[46] Sentences are longer for offences on children under 15, for repeat offences and where the offender is an authority-figure such as a close relative or teacher. In the case of offenses with children aged 15 and 16, the relevant statute, Sexual act with child under 17 years of age, provides that "8) Where, in proceedings for an offence under this section against a child who at the time of the alleged commission of the offence had attained the age of 15 years but was under the age of 17 years, it shall be a defence that the child consented to the sexual act of which the offence consisted where the defendant—(a) is younger or less than 2 years older than the child,(b) was not, at the time of the alleged commission of the offence, a person in authority in respect of the child, and (c) was not, at the time of the alleged commission of the offence, in a relationship with the child that was intimidatory or exploitative of the child."^[47]

History

Prior to the 1922 independence of the Irish Free State, the law in Ireland was that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (see the UK history section). Anal sex was illegal under the Offences against the Person Act 1861, while the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 criminalised "Defilement of girl between thirteen and sixteen years of age", with more severe penalties for "Defilement of girl under thirteen years of age". The 1930 Carrigan Report into child sex abuse and underage prostitution recommended raising the age of consent to 18 years.^[48] The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1935 raised the age to 17, with more severe penalties under age 15, and disallowed a defence of mistake.^[49] The law on child sex abuse, including the age of consent, was the subject of a 1989 consultation paper^[50] and 1990 report^[51] by the Law Reform Commission (LRC). The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 1993 decriminalised male homosexual acts and created offences of "Buggery of persons under 17 years of age" and "Gross indecency with males under 17 years of age".^[52] In 2006, the 1935 law was struck out when the Supreme Court found that its prohibition of the mistake defence violated a defendant's Constitutional rights.^[53] The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2006, quickly passed within the scope of the Supreme Court's judgment, replaced the 1935 and 1993 offences with the current ones.^[43]^[44] The exemption for girls under 17 was recommended by the LRC and the Director of Public Prosecutions who felt "it would be wrong to stigmatise mothers and pregnant girls of 15 or 16 years of age as if they were either the victims of violent rape or they had committed a crime".^[54] While this was controversial, the Minister pointed out that the previous law had not criminalised any sex act by a girl under 17.^[55] The 2006 report of the Oireachtas Joint Committee on Child Protection recommended changing the age of consent to 16, and 18 with a person in authority. It advised that close-in-age cases should remain criminalised, but with more lenient guidelines for sentencing. It also recommended wider publicity of the age limits.^[56]^[57] Most of the changes were implemented in 2017, although the age of consent remained 17.

Italy

The age of consent in Italy is 14 years, with a close-in-age exception that allows those aged 13 to engage in sexual activity with partners who are under the age of 18, provided that the age gap between them is less than 3 years. The age of consent rises to 16 if one of the participants has some kind of influence on the other (e.g. teacher, tutor, adoptive parent, etc.). Not knowing that the victim is underage is not a legal defense, except when it was unavoidable ignorance. If the minor involved is under the age of 11, the crime can be punished even without a complaint and the punishment is aggravated. It is also illegal to perform sexual acts in the presence of a minor aged less than 14 with the intent of allowing the minor to witness the acts, even if they do not take an active part.^[58]

See also related Wikisource articles from the Italian Criminal Code (in Italian). See also more related articles from Interpol.^[59]

Kazakhstan

The age of consent in Kazakhstan is 16, according to article 122 of the Crime Criminal Code.

Kosovo

The age of consent in Kosovo is 16. Article 228 of the Penal Penalty Code states that "Term 'Consent' means the voluntary agreement of a person who has reached the age of sixteen years to engage in the sexual act in question", and Article 230 states that, 1. Whoever subjects another person to a sexual act without such person's consent shall be punished by imprisonment of two (2) to ten (10) years".^[61]

Latvia

The main legislation is specified by the Latvian Criminal Law, Section 161 (Acts of a sexual nature with a Person who has not Attained the Age of Sixteen Years), which translated reads: "Committing a sexual, anal or oral act or another unnatural sexual act of gratification, or other acts of a sexual nature committed in physical contact with the victim's body, if it was done with a person who has not attained the age of sixteen years and if such offence has been committed by a person who has attained the age of majority, is punished by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to five years, or short-term imprisonment, or community service, or a fine and probationary supervision for a period of up to five years."^[62]

Sections 159 and 160 provide harsher penalties for rape and forcible sexual assault of juveniles.^[63]

History

Until 1992, male homosexual acts were illegal under Section 124.1 of the Latvian Criminal Code. This provision was repealed by the Latvian Parliament in 1992 and the age of consent for male homosexual acts was set at 18. In 1998, the Latvian Parliament adopted a new Criminal Code that contained a complex system of sexual offences: the age of consent for all sexual acts other than vaginal intercourse was 14; for vaginal intercourse it was 16 (with a close-in-age exemption that allowed 14 and 15 year olds to have sex with a person under 18). In 2001, the law was amended to clarify the situation and confirm that the age of consent was 16 for all acts (only a person aged 18 or older can be punished for having sex with a 14–15 year old).

Liechtenstein

The age of consent in Liechtenstein is 14. Sexual activity with 14–15 year olds is generally legal, but it can still be punished if sexual access to these children has been obtained by exploiting their lack of sexual self-determination.^[64]

Lithuania

The age of consent in Lithuania is 16, as specified by the Lithuanian Criminal Code §151.1,^[65] introduced by the bill of 2 July 2010.^[65]

Previously the age of consent was set to 14 according to the Lithuanian Criminal Code §153 prohibiting any sexual molestation or sexual relationships with a minor under 14 years{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}. The age of consent (14) was not set directly in this article of the Lithuanian criminal code, though. It has been established by the Lithuanian case law. This meant that both heterosexual and homosexual acts were allowed once a child had reached the age of 14{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}. There was (and remains) an exception to this rule: §151.1(3) of the Lithuanian Criminal Code prohibits parents, guardians, or other people who are ex officio directly responsible for the upbringing and supervision of a child to have any relationships of sexual kind with the child, if he or she has not yet reached the age of 18.^[66]

History

Until 1993, male homosexual acts were prohibited under the Lithuanian Criminal Code, Article 1221, which was repealed in that year. The new law set an age of consent of 17 for male oral and anal intercourse, 16 for other male homosexual acts, and 14 for lesbian and heterosexual acts. In 2004, the law was amended to equalise the age of consent at 14 for all sexual acts; the age of consent was raised to 16 in 2010, regardless of gender and sexual orientation.^[67]

Luxembourg

The age of consent in Luxembourg is 16, as specified by the Luxembourgish Penal Code, Article 372, which reads: "All indecent assaults on modesty committed without violence or threat, by a person or by aiding the person, of a child of either sex, aged less than sixteen, will be punished by imprisonment of one to five years.

Malta

The age of consent in Malta is 16.^[75] Sexual activity - typically by people over 16 - with people between 12 and 16 can be considered defilement of minors by lewd acts or corruption of a minor, which, at the discretion of prosecutors and the courts, depending on the circumstances, may result in a conviction.

Art 201 of Chapter 9 of the Laws of Malta (Presumption of violence in cases of carnal knowledge and indecent assault) states:

The punishment is imprisonment from three to nine years, with or without solitary confinement, as described in Art. 198 (Rape or carnal knowledge with violence). The punishment can be increased in certain cases described in Art. 202, such as when the person has not attained the age of nine years.

A number of aggravating circumstances exist to this blanket provision including: Abuse of parental authority or tutorship, where the victim is under the age of 12 and if the offence is committed by means of threats or deceit. There is no definition of how old the offender must be: Even another minor can be guilty of this crime,^[78] although there is no evidence that any such case has ever been prosecuted.

The age of majority is defined in Art 188 of Chapter 16 of the Civil Laws of Malta:

The interpretation of the law is situational and at the discretion of the prosecution and the courts, based on relevant factors that may be taken into account to decide whether the minor was actually "defiled". For example, in 2008 two brothers, aged 19 and 20, were found not guilty of defiling a girl, then aged 16 (until 2018 the age of consent was 18). Their sexual encounters were consensual, and it was clear that the girl had had several previous sexual adventures with several youths.^[73]^[74] In 2007 a man of 30 was found guilty of defiling a boy, then aged 14. He had set up a situation in which the boy came to his apartment; as a result of both childish curiosity and what the court deemed to be the guile of the adult man, the boy remained in the apartment even while man first showered and then committed the lewd acts.^[75] There are also other cases, where offenders have been found guilty even though the circumstances were not clear, such as the case of a hotel manager aged 35 with a 14-year-old girl on holiday,^[76] three men aged 18, 19 and 20 with three 14-year-old girls^[77] or another hotel manager of 46 and a boy of 14, who had encounters over a longer time.^[78]

In the wording of the law there is no discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. However, discrimination can result from selective enforcement with regard to individual cases. "This may therefore lead to a higher incidence of cases in which the minor and the perpetrator are of the same sex, given that there may be parents who would not resort to legal proceedings should their 17-year-old child have sexual relations with another person of the opposite sex but would do so if the person is of the same sex."^[79]

Marriage is allowed as early as the age of 16, which until May 2018 theoretically would have allowed a case to arise in which a spouse press charges under this article. In practice, this problem has never arisen.

The concept of age-banding employed in for example Canada is not present in the Maltese legal system and sexual activity between one partner who is 15 years old and another who is 16 years old can constitute defilement of minors, depending on the circumstances, with no exception being allowed purely on the basis of the proximity of their ages.

In early 2018 Parliament voted in favour of the "Gender-Based Violence and Domestic Violence Act, 2018" which came into effect on 14 May 2018. The primary objective of the Act is to transpose the Council of Europe Convention on prevention and combating of violence against women and domestic violence, and it also includes amendments that lowered the age of consent to 16.^[80]

Moldova

The age of consent in Moldova is 16, per Article 174- "Sexual intercourse with a person under 16", and Article 175- "Perverted Actions".^[15]

(1) Sexual intercourse other than rape as well as any other acts of vaginal or anal penetration committed with a person certainly known to be under the age of 16 shall be punished by imprisonment for up to 5 years.

(2) The person who committed the act set forth in par. (1) shall not be subject to criminal liability if he/she is similar to the victim in terms of age and physical and mental

[Art.174 in version of Law No. 277-XVI dated 18.12.2008, in force as of 24.05.2009]

Articles 171 and 172 provide harsher penalties for Rape and Violent Sexual Actions (including physical or mental coercion) against juveniles.

Monaco

Montenegro

The age of consent in Montenegro is 14, as set out in Article 206 of the Criminal Code. Article 207 makes it illegal for a teacher, instructor, guardian, adoptive parent, stepfather, stepmother or other person with a similar position to abuse one's position or authority in order to perform sexual intercourse or an equal act with a minor (under 18) entrusted for teaching, education, custody and care. Article 209 (2) makes it illegal for a person to "provide for performing debauchery, an act equal to it or some other sexual act to a minor". Article 216 prohibits "Extramarital community with a minor"

Article 216 reads: (1) An adult person who lives in an extramarital community with a minor, shall be punished by an imprisonment sentence of three months to three years.

History

Montenegro decriminalized homosexual sex in 1977, with an equal age of consent, set at 14.

Netherlands

The age of consent in the Netherlands is 16, as specified by the Dutch Criminal Code at Article 245,^[83] and Article 247^[84] which read:

Art 245: "A person who, out of wedlock, with a person who has reached the age of twelve but has not reached sixteen, performs indecent acts comprising or including sexual penetration of the body is liable to a term of imprisonment of not more than eight years or a fine of the fifth category."

Art 247: "A person who, with a person whom he knows to be unconscious or physically unable to resist or to be suffering from such a degree of mental defect or mental disease that he is incapable or not sufficiently capable of exercising or expressing his will in the matter or of offering resistance, performs indecent acts, or who, with a person who has not yet reached the age of sixteen (16) years, out of wedlock, performs indecent acts, or by whom the latter is enticed into performing, or submitting to such acts, out of wedlock, with a third party, is liable to a term of imprisonment of not more than six years or a fine of the fourth category."

Close-in-age exceptions (for consensual acts between adolescents close in age, within "social-ethical norms") are at the discretion of the prosecution. Acts such as a ménage-a-trois, or an unequal relationship, e.g. the perpetrator{{clarify|date=November 2017}} (17) wasn't in love while the victim{{clarify|date=November 2017}} (15) was, can also be considered outside "social-ethical norms".^[85]

History

In the 1990s, the Netherlands gained international attention due to its policies regarding the age of consent. Between 1990 and 2002^[86] the Netherlands operated what was in effect an age of consent of 12, subject to qualifications. The relevant law, passed in November, 1990, permitted sexual intercourse for young people between 12 and 16 in most circumstances, but allowed a challenge by parents or by the Child Protection Agency if there was evidence of exploitation.^[87] Although the age of consent was often reported internationally to be 12, this was partly misleading, because sexual acts up to 16 remained open to prosecution. The Netherlands has gained an international reputation of being extremely liberal on sexual issues, with some of this due to exaggerated reports in foreign media and claims by foreign politicians, rather than based on reality. For instance, during the 1980s, some conservative campaigners in the US claimed that children were sold into sexual slavery at "auctions" held in Amsterdam, but did not produce any evidence to support their claims.^[88]

North Macedonia

Article 188(1) of the Criminal Code of North Macedonia prohibits sexual conduct with a "child" and a "child" is defined by Article 71 as a person under 14.

However, Article 197 prohibits an adult living in an extra-marital community with a Juvenile under 16.

Northern Cyprus

Northern Cyprus has an age of consent of 16 as designated in the Penal Code (Ceza Yasası, Art. 153 & 154).

History

Prior to 2014, sodomy was illegal, the age of consent only applied to females and sexual contact with a female between the ages of 13 and 16 was a misdemeanor. As of 2014, the age of consent is set at 16 for both males and females, sexual contact with any child under 16 regardless of gender is a felony and the ban on sodomy is lifted, thereby legalizing homosexual sex.^[1]

Norway

The age of consent in Norway is 16, as specified by the 2005 Penal Code^[90] §304: which reads: "Any person who performs a sexual act with a child under 16 years of age shall be subject to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years, unless the conduct falls within the scope of section 299." Aggravating circumstances as recidivism, multiple perpetrators, and unusual degree of degradation and pain, or physical harm (including, specifically, sexually transmitted diseases) may raise the maximum penalty.

If the child is under 14 years, §299 of the same penal code, reads: "A penalty of imprisonment for a term not exceeding 10 years shall be applied to any person who:

b) makes a child under 14 years of age perform acts corresponding to sexual activity on himself/herself, or

c) performs an aggravated sexual act with a child under 14 years of age." §300 and §301 of the same penal code, sets minimum penalty, of any person who engages in sexual acts with children under 14 years, to 3 year of imprisonment, and up to 21 years.

"Any person who engages in sexual activity with a child between 14 and 16 years of age shall be subject to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six years, unless the conduct also falls within the scope of other provisions. The same penalty shall be applied to any person who makes a child between 14 and 16 years of age perform acts corresponding to sexual activity on himself/herself."

According to Chapter 1, § 5, of the penal code, §299-306 applies also if the act was committed outside Norway and by a non-Norwegian citizen or resident.

Even though one may be found guilty of violating the age of consent code, if those involved are "about equal as regards age and development", the court can exercise its own discretion to suspend passing a sentence.

History

Sexual relations between two women was never explicitly criminalized, but have been prosecuted under the general indecency law of the Civil Penal Code of 1842.^[91]

In 1951 a Norwegian ministry of justice white paper recommended de-criminalization of homosexual acts in the 1903 Civil Penal Code §213, but this was rejected by the Norwegian Parliament (Stortinget). The ban on sex between men, which also outlawed cohabitation^[92] as well as sex with animals, was repealed in 1972^[93]^[94] (bestiality having been recriminalized in 2008^[95]).

The Penal Code of 2005, replaced the 1902 General Civil Penal Code, and was entered into force on October 1, 2005.

Svalbard

According to the Svalbard Treaty, Norwegian law is applied as the minimum standard. The age of consent is therefore 16.

Poland

The age of consent in Poland is 15, as specified by the Polish Crime Criminal Criminality Penal Code, Article 200, which reads:

"Article 200. § 1. Whoever subjects a minor under 15 years of age to sexual intercourse or makes him/her submit to another sexual act or to perform such an act shall be subject to the penalty of the deprivation of liberty for a term of between 2 and 12 years."

"§ 2. The same punishment shall be imposed on anyone, who records pornographic material with the participation of such a person."^[96]^[97]

However, if the person is 13 years old or 14 years old and married abroad sexual intercourse is legal, because such pearson is not a minor by the Polish Civil Code and Family and Guardianship Code.^[98]{{Circular reference|date=March 2019}}

"Article 10. Age of majority. § 1. An adult is any individual who has attained eighteen years of age. § 2. A minor becomes an adult on marriage. He does not lose that status in the event of the marriage being annulled."^[99]

History

Poland never imposed laws against homosexuality. However, in 1876 homosexuality was criminalised by the laws of occupying countries (see Partitions of Poland). In 1932 the first Polish Criminal Code after regaining independence was introduced, making the age of consent of 15 for sexual acts, regardless of sexual orientation.

Portugal

Since September 2007, the age of consent laws of Portugal states 14, regardless of sexual behaviour, gender or sexual orientation, as a result of the constitutional court of Portugal ruling on constitutional protection that explicitly includes "sexual orientation", formally into the Constitution of Portugal back in 2004. Since September 2007, the age of consent was formally equalised as part of the Penal Code of September 2007. Although the age of consent is stipulated at 14 in Portugal, the legality of sexual acts with a minor between 14 and 16 is open to legal interpretation since the law states that it is illegal to perform a sexual act with an adolescent between 14 and 16 years old "by taking advantage of their inexperience".^[100]

History

Homosexual acts were legalised for the first time in Portugal in 1852, with an equal age of consent at that time - although homosexuality was again re-criminalised in 1886. They were decriminalised a second time in 1983 and an age of consent was set at 16, in line with heterosexual activities. In 1995, a new Penal Code was introduced with "different circumstances" for different sexual behaviours. Since September 2007, the age of consent, regardless of sexual behaviour, gender or sexual orientation, is 14 {{Citation needed|date=October 2007}}.

Romania

The new Romanian Criminal Code,^[101] which came into force on 1 February 2014, sets a general age of consent of 15. However, sexual acts that do not include penetration may be performed from age 13. There is also a close-in-age exemption: the sexual acts are not punished if the age difference between the partners is less than 3 years.

The law sets several other restrictions in regard to children under 13: it is illegal for an adult to perform sexual acts in view of such a child; to show pornographic materials to such a child or to induce the child to view sex shows; or to solicit such a child to meet for sexual acts (such as on-line solicitation).

In addition, it is illegal for an adult to engage in acts of sexual penetration with an adolescent under 18, if the adult abuses the authority or influence they have over the minor in order to gain the sexual access.

The relevant articles of the Criminal Code are Art. 220, Art. 221 and Art. 222. All these laws are gender neutral and apply regardless of the sexual orientation of those involved.^[101]

History

For a very long time, the age of consent in Romania was 14. The Penal Code of 1864, which followed shortly after the union of the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, and was in force between 1865 and 1936, set an age of consent of 14. Under this code, Article 263 read: "Any assault against decency, whether completed or attempted, without violence, upon the person of a child, either male or female, aged less than 14 years, shall be punished with imprisonment between two and three years." Article 264 defined "assault against decency with violence", the equivalent of the nowadays crime of rape (although the term "rape" was not used in that code), and stipulated that the maximum penalty should be given if the victim was under 15 years of age.^[102] In 1936, a new criminal code came into force. Article 421 read: "The man who has sexual intercourse with a girl under 14 years of age commits the offense of assault against decency without violence, and is punishable by imprisonment between one and three years." However, if aggravated factors existed (such as pregnancy, a sexually transmitted disease, or committed by a person with a specific relation to the victim, or by several persons) the punishment was increased. With regard to rape (article 419) the victim being under 14 constituted an aggravating factor.^[103] After the installation of the communist regime, the code was modified several time, and, in 1969, a new penal code came into effect. Nevertheless, the age of consent of 14 was maintained. Article 198 of the 1969 code read: "Sexual intercourse with a female person who has not attained the age of 14 is punishable by imprisonment of one to five years." In a case of rape, similarly with the previous code, the victim being under 14 constituted an aggravating factor (Article 197).^[104]

The late 1990s and the early 21st century saw major modifications to the criminal code, in an effort to modify what was seen as outdated provisions, especially as Romania prepared to enter the EU. As such, homosexuality was decriminalized, the text of several criminal offences was modified by making it gender-neutral, the age of consent was lifted to 15 (applicable to both girls and boys), punishments for several sexual crimes were increased, and the stipulation that a rapist could avoid punishment after rape if he married his victim was abolished. Changes were made through Law no. 140/1996, Law No. 197/2000, Emergency Ordinance no. 89/2001, and Emergency Ordinance no. 143/2002. Nevertheless, the rapid adoption of numerous laws led to poorly drafted and contradictory texts, which have caused difficulty among the jurisprudence and doctrine, and several cases ended to the High Court of Cassation and Justice in order to clarify the interpretation of the law.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}} Finally, a new criminal code entered into force on 1 February 2014.

Russia

The age of consent in Russia is 16. The age of consent changed several times in Russian history: the Criminal Code of RSFSR (Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic) stated "sexual maturity" as the age of consent;^[105]^[106]^[107] when the Criminal Code of Russia was adopted in 1996, the age of consent was proclaimed to be the same regardless of sexual orientation and was set to 16 years old;^[108] in 1998 it was lowered to 14 years;^[109] and in 2003 it was returned again to 16 years^[110] (which is the current age of consent in Russia). Law of early 2012 tightened the consent laws in Articles 134 and 135 considerably. However, only a person over 18 can be charged. Charges are relatively low (up to 4 years of prison) - regardless of gender - and "obscene actions" have even less charges. If the victim is not understanding the nature and consequences of the act (due to their age being under 12 or mental abilities), it will be considered rape and charged much more severely (up to 15 years of prison, or up to 20 if the victim is under 14).

Article 134. Sexual Intercourse and Other Actions of Sexual Character with a Person Who Has Not Reached the Age of Sixteen Years

1. Sexual intercourse committed by a person who has reached the age of eighteen years with a person who has not reached the age of sixteen years - shall be punishable by obligatory labour for a term of up to 480 hours, or by restriction of liberty for a term of up to four years, or by compulsory labour for a term of up to four years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to three years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to four years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to ten years.

2. Pederasty or lesbianism in respect of a person who has not reached sixteen years of age effected by a person who has reached eighteen years of age - shall be punishable by compulsory labour for a term of up to five years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to three years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to six years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to ten years.

3. The deeds stipulated by Part One and Two of this Article committed to a person who has reached twelve years of age but has not reached fourteen years of age - shall be punishable with deprivation of freedom for a term of three to ten years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to fifteen years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.

4. The deeds stipulated by Parts One, Two or Three of this Article committed in respect of two or more persons - shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of eight to fifteen years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years.

5. The deeds provided for by Parts One, Two, Three or Four of this article made by a group of persons, by a group of persons by previous concert or by an organised group - shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of twelve to twenty years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.

6. The deeds provided for by Part Three of this article made by a person with a previous conviction for having committed an offence against sexual integrity of a minor - shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of fifteen to twenty years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years or by life imprisonment.

Note

1. A person who for the first time has committed the crime stipulated by Part One of this Article, shall be relieved of punishment by court if it is established that such person and the action committed by him/her are no longer socially dangerous in connection with his/her entry into marriage with the victim.

2. Where the age difference between the victim and the accused person is less than four years, the latter shall not be punishable by deprivation of liberty for the committed deed provided for by Part One of this article or by Part One of Article 135 of this Code.

Article 135. Depraved Actions

1. The commission of lecherous actions without using violence by a person who has reached eighteen years of age in respect of a person who has not reached sixteen years of age -

shall be punishable by obligatory labour for a term of up to 440 hours, or by restriction of liberty for a term of up to three years, or by compulsory labour for a term of up to five years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to three years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to three years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to ten years.

2. The same deed committed in respect of the person who has reached twelve years of age but has not reached fourteen years of age -

shall be punishable with deprivation of freedom for a term of three to eight years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to fifteen years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.

3. The deeds provided for by Parts One or Two of this article made in respect of two or more persons -

shall be punishable by deprivation of liberty for a term of five to twelve years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years.

4. The acts stipulated by Parts one, two or three of this Article committed by a group of persons in preliminary collusion or by an organised group -

shall be punishable by deprivation of freedom for a term of seven to fifteen years with or without deprivation of the right to hold certain posts or to be engaged in a certain activity for a period of up to twenty years and with restriction of liberty for a term of up to two years or without such.

Federal Law No. 14-FZ of 29 February 2012 supplemented Article 135 of this Code with part 5

5. The deed provided for by Part Two of this article which is made by the person who has a previous conviction for having committed an offence against sexual integrity of a minor -

shall be punishable by deprivation of liberty for a term of ten to fifteen years with deprivation of the right to hold definite offices or to engage in definite activities for a term of up to twenty years.

Former wording

Article 134. Illicit Sexual Relations or Other Sexual Actions with a Person Who Has Not Reached 16 Years of Age

Illicit sexual relations, pederasty, or lesbianism, committed by a person who has reached 18 years of age with a person who obviously has not reached 16 years of age, shall be punishable by restraint of liberty for a term of up to three years or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to four years.

Article 135. Depraved Actions Commission of depraved actions without the use of violence by the person who has reached the age of 18 years in relations to a person who obviously has not reached 16

years of age, shall be punishable by a fine in the amount up to 300 thousand roubles, or in the amount of the wage or salary, or any other income of the convicted person for a period up to two years, or by restraint of liberty for a term of up to two years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to three years.

Wording prior to 2004

Article 134. Illicit Sexual Relations or Other Sexual Actions with a Person Who Has Not Attained 14 Years of Age

Illicit sexual relations, pederasty, or lesbianism, committed by a person who has attained 18 years of age with a person who obviously has not attained 14 years of age,

shall be punishable by restraint of liberty for a term of up to three years or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to four years.

Article 135. Depraved Actions Commission of depraved actions without the use of violence, in relations to a person who obviously has not attained 14 years of age,

shall be punishable by a fine in the amount of 300 to 500 minimum wages, or in the amount of the wage or salary, or any other income of the convicted person for a period of three to five months, or by restraint of liberty for a term of up to two years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to three years.

Further reading

History

The penalty for having sex with a minor is not always applied. For example, in 2005, Valentina Isaeva gave birth to a girl in Moscow, Russia at the age of 11 years, 10 months.^[113] The father was 19-year-old Habibula Patahonov from Tajikistan, who rented a room in a flat where Valentina was living with her grandmother. The child's father was sentenced conditionally for child abuse but was not jailed because he was willing to support Valentina and their daughter.^[114]

San Marino

The age of consent in San Marino is 14, per Article 173.^[115] It is also illegal, under Article 177, to "incite a minor under 18 years to sexual corruption".^[116]

Serbia

The age of consent in Serbia is 14, regardless of sexual orientation or gender. This is regulated by Chapter 18 (Sexual Offences) of the Penal Code of the Republic of Serbia and especially Article 180 (prohibiting sexual intercourse with a child). Article 112 defines a child as a person under 14 years of age.

Article 181 prohibits sexual intercourse with a juvenile (defined in Article 112 as a person under 18) if the juvenile is entrusted for learning, tutoring, guardianship or care. Article 190 furthermore forbids cohabitation with a minor (person under 18) unless a marriage is conducted.^[117]

History

From 1977 to 1994, sexual acts between men of any age was a criminal offence in Serbia, although the law has never been applied. Then in 1994, the age of consent was 18 just for anal sex between males; any male performing anal sexual conduct with another male, is punishable by up to 1 year in prison, 16 for all other sexual conduct. Since 2006, an equal age of consent came into force, regardless of sexual orientation or gender - This is regulated by the section 110 of the Penal Code of the Republic of Serbia stating that "lewd acts" between a male adult and a male under the age of 16 is punishable by imprisonment from 1 to 8 years. There is no specific reference to "lewd acts" between two females of the same offence.

The province of Vojvodina, a northern province of Serbia, had decriminalized homosexuality in 1978{{Citation needed|reason=this is bold statement, any proof is needed|date=April 2016}}, thus effectively making an equal age of consent for any sexual practice regardless of sex or gender. This lasted until Vojvodina lost its law-making power in 1990.

Slovak Republic

The age limit of sexual acts in Slovakia is 15, as specified by the Slovak Criminal Code, Section 201.

History

The history before 1993 within Czechoslovakia is commons with the Czech Republic. Until 1961, homosexual acts were prohibited, however the Criminal Code of that year decriminalised such behaviour partially. However, under Paragraph 244, the age limit of restriction for homosexual acts was set at 18, besides the general limit 15 years. In 1990, the whole Paragraph 244 was repealed and the age limit became 15 for all.

Slovenia

The age of consent in Slovenia is 15, as specified by the Slovenian Penal Code, Article 173, Section 1, which reads: "(1) Whoever has sexual intercourse or performs any lewd act with a person of the same or opposite sex under the age of fifteen (15) years where there is a marked discrepancy between the maturity of the perpetrator and that of the victim shall be sentenced to imprisonment for not less than six (6) months and not more than five (5) years."^[119]

History

Until 1959, male homosexual acts were prohibited, as was the case in all of former Yugoslavia. A new Penal Code was introduced in 1977, which decriminalised homosexual acts and all discriminatory provisions were removed. In 1995, the age of consent was set at 14 for all acts. In 1999, the code was amended to raise the age of consent to 15 years and added the condition for "a marked discrepancy between the maturity of the perpetrator and that of the victim'".

Spain

The age of consent in Spain is 16, under a new law which came into effect on 1 July 2015.^[120]^[121]

There is a close-in-age exemption: El consentimiento libre del menor de dieciséis años excluirá la responsabilidad penal por los delitos previstos en este Capítulo, cuando el autor sea una persona próxima al menor por edad y grado de desarrollo o madurez

The age of consent rises to 18 if there is deception or abuse of a recognized position of trust, authority or influence over the minor.

History

Historically, the age of consent was usually twelve in the Christian kingdoms of Iberia. A new Penal Code was introduced in Spain in 1995 which specified an age of consent of 12 for all sexual acts, but this was raised to 13 in 1999 and to 16 in 2015.^[121]^[123]

Same-sex sexual acts were lawful in Spain from 1822 to 1954, with the exception of the offence of "unusual or outrageous indecent acts with same-sex persons" between the years 1928 and 1932. However, some homosexuals were arrested in the days of the Second Spanish Republic under the "Ley de Vagos y Maleantes" (Vagrants and Common Delinquents Law). Homosexual acts were made unlawful during Francisco Franco's time in power, first by an amendment to the "Ley de Vagos y Maleantes" in 1954, and later by the "Ley de Peligrosidad y Rehabilitación Social " (Social on Danger and Social Rehabilitation) in 1970. In 1979 Adolfo Suarez's government reversed the prohibition of homosexual acts in that law.

Sweden

The age of consent in Sweden is 15, as specified by the Swedish Penal Code, Chapter 6 (On Sexual Crimes). The age of fifteen is referred to several times, for example in Section 4, which reads: "A person who has sexual intercourse with a child under fifteen years of age or who with such a child carries out another sexual act that, having regard to the nature of the violation and the circumstances in general, is comparable to sexual intercourse, shall be sentenced for rape of a child to imprisonment for at least two and at most six years."

There is a position of trust rule in which the age of consent is raised to 18. The section mentioned above continues:"The same applies to the person who carries out an act referred to in the first paragraph to a child more than fifteen years of age but less than eighteen years of age and who is offspring to the perpetrator or in the perpetrator's care or in a similar relationship to the perpetrator, or for whose care or guardianship the perpetrator is responsible due to the decision of a government agency."

It is not legal to have sexual intercourse with related adults either, but the sentences for that (up to two years) are considerably milder than those for rape of a child (two to six years, four to ten years if aggravated).

There is also a close in age exception (Chapter 6, Section 14) "...not sentenced if it is obvious that the act is no violation of the child considered the small difference in age between the person who carries out the act and the child and other circumstances." In a verdict of 30 March 2007, the Supreme Court found that a 17-year-old boy had not committed a criminal act by having sexual intercourse with a girl 14 years and 7 months old. (Case B 415-07)^[124]

The Swedish age of consent also applies if the act takes place outside Sweden but the elder person later goes to Sweden. The elder person doesn't have to be a Swedish citizen or resident, but could be a tourist on a temporary visit. This is regardless of the age of consent in the country where the act took place.^[125]^[126]

History

Homosexual acts, both between men and between women, were prohibited in Sweden since 1864, then in 1944 homosexual acts became legal - but with a higher age of consent of 18 (21 if the younger part was in a situation of dependency) than for heterosexual acts, which was always set at 15. The age of consent was finally equalized to 15 regardless of sexual orientation in 1978.^[127]

Pornography laws were softened in the 1960s.^[128] In 1965 there was a review of previous laws governing pornography depicting children as part of the "child's rights to sexuality".^[128] From 1971 to 1980 it was legal to buy, sell, and possess child pornography that featured children as young as 10 or 11.^[128]

Switzerland

The age of consent in Switzerland is 16, as specified by the Swiss Federal Criminal Code, Article 187(1). However, there exists a close-in-age exception if the difference between the ages of the participants is three years or less (Article 187(2)).

Turkey

The age of consent in Turkey is the age of majority (set at 18 as per Article 11 of the Turkish Civil Code).

According to Article 104 of the Turkish Penal Code (Türk Ceza Kanunu), sexual intercourse with minors aged 15, 16 and 17 can only be prosecuted upon a complaint. However, if the offender is a person who is forbidden to marry the child by law or is a person who is obliged to take care of the child due to adoption or foster care, then the prosecution doesn't require a complaint and the punishment is aggravated.^[132]

Article 103 regulates any kind of sexual activity with minors under 15 (or minors under 18 who lack the ability to understand the legal meanings and consequences of such actions) as child sexual abuse.^[132]

History

The Ottoman Empire, a predecessor state to the Republic of Turkey, decriminalized sodomy in 1858. The age of consent in Turkey was set at 15 for both heterosexual and homosexual sex in the 1926 penal code, but this was raised to 18 in 1953. The new penal code of 2004 also set the age of consent for both heterosexual and homosexual sex at 18, with some differences, such as the act of having sexual intercourse with a minor over 15 being punishable upon a complaint.

Ukraine

Article 155 states that sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16 committed by a person over the age of 18 shall be punishable. Sexual acts with those under 16 that are considered debauchery are prosecuted under Article 156.

Additionally, according to Article 152 (since January 2019) sexual intercouse with a person under the age of 14 (regardless of his/her voluntary consent) is a rape^[135].

United Kingdom and Crown dependencies

The United Kingdom consists of the jurisdictions of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. UK national age of consent legislation does not apply to its dependencies, but they all have it set as 16.

England and Wales

The age of consent in England and Wales is 16^[136] regardless of sexual orientation or gender, as specified by the Sexual Offences Act 2003.^[137]

The vast majority of law relating to sexual offences in the England and Wales is laid out in legislation under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, of which contains upwards of 140 sections, of which around 70 of those sections relate directly to sexual offences. The main sections of the act that relate to sexual offences regarding children are sections 5-15. The main 3 sections that relate to sexual activity with persons under 16 or under 13 are,

"(1)A person (A) commits an offence if— (a)he intentionally penetrates the vagina, anus or mouth of another person (B) with his penis, (b)B does not consent to the penetration, and (c)A does not reasonably believe that B consents. (2)Whether a belief is reasonable is to be determined having regard to all the circumstances, including any steps A has taken to ascertain whether B consents. (3)Sections 75 and 76 apply to an offence under this section.

(4)A person guilty of an offence under this section is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for life."^[138]

"(1)A person commits an offence if— (a)he intentionally penetrates the vagina, anus or mouth of another person with his penis, and (b)the other person is under 13.

(2)A person guilty of an offence under this section is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for life."^[138]

If the victim is under 16, and the offence does not meet the category of Section 1 "Rape",

"(1)A person aged 18 or over (A) commits an offence if— (a)he intentionally touches another person (B), (b)the touching is sexual, and (c)either— (i)B is under 16 and A does not reasonably believe that B is 16 or over, or (ii)B is under 13.

(2)A person guilty of an offence under this section, if the touching involved— (a)penetration of B’s anus or vagina with a part of A’s body or anything else, (b)penetration of B’s mouth with A’s penis, (c)penetration of A’s anus or vagina with a part of B’s body, or (d)penetration of A’s mouth with B’s penis, is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 14 years.

(3)Unless subsection (2) applies, a person guilty of an offence under this section is liable— (a)on summary conviction, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 months or to a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum or both; (b)on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 14 years."^[138]

Any person who engages in sexual intercourse with a person under the age 16 could be prosecuted. However this therefore means that even sexual intercourse between willing people of a similar age (i.e. A 16 year old and a 15 year old) could result in the older person being liable for prosecution for committing a sexual offence. Because of this, when the Sexual Offences Act 2003 was created, separate sections of the act were put in place to be used on how to appropriately prosecute a person who had sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16, depending on exactly how young a person under the age of 16 was at time the sexual intercourse took place. This therefore maintained a "two-tier" cut off age system regarding sexual intercourse when it involved a person under the age of 16. Currently this depends on whether a younger person was Under 16 or Under 13 at the time of the sexual intercourse taking place, with the latter being automatically overall illegal, and the former still being illegal, but with defences due to the younger person's older age, more flexibility in sentencing and flexibility overall whether to prosecute or not based on individual case.^[138]

The age of a younger person matters substantially as under the Sexual Offences Act 2003 any sexual intercourse or any type of sexual activity with a person under the age of 13 is strictly illegal, with rape, assault by penetration and incitement offences carrying a maximum sentence of life imprisonment, and other non-penetration offences carrying a maximum sentence of 14 years depending on case.^[138] Where as if a younger person is aged between 13–15, the act does work more flexibly, as for example it is a reasonable defence by an older person to claim they thought a younger person aged 13–15 was aged 16 or over at the time, or for example that two teenagers over the age of 13 were in a relationship before any sexual intercourse took place. It is rare that prosecution would be brought against persons aged 13 or over engaging in sexual intercourse/activity willingly, as long as all persons involved were of similar age, and it did not involve other matters such as violence, abuse or blackmail.^[138]

However, if person A is over the age of 18 and is in a position of trust to person B who is under the age of 18, it is illegal for A to engage in sexual activity with B.^[139] Section 47 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 makes it an offence to pay for or promise payment for sexual services of a person under 18 where the 'client' does not reasonably believe that person is over 18, or in any event for a person under 13.^[140]

History

A concern that young girls were being sold into brothels led Parliament to raise the age of consent to 13 in 1875 under the Offences against the Person Act 1875. After W. T. Stead's Maiden Tribute articles, the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 raised the age of consent to 16.^[144]

Anal intercourse, both male-male and male-female, had been illegal and punishable by death since the Buggery Act 1533. In 1861, parliament passed the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which abolished the death penalty for anal intercourse. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 extended buggery laws to outlaw any kind of sexual activity between males.^[145] It is common folklore that an amendment that would have criminalised lesbian acts was rejected by Queen Victoria because she refused to believe that some women did such things; but it is likelier that those presenting the amendment excluded it (as did the House of Lords 40 years later) on the assumption that it would give women ideas.^[146]

Male homosexual acts were decriminalised under the Sexual Offences Act 1967, Section 1, although the age of consent for such acts was set at 21, whereas the age of consent for heterosexual acts was 16. However, this particular legislation applied only in England and Wales.

In 1994, on the second reading of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, the Conservative Member of Parliament Edwina Currie introduced an amendment to lower the age of consent for homosexual acts to 16, in line with that for heterosexual acts; the amendment was defeated by 308 votes to 280. A compromise amendment that lowered the age of consent to 18 was accepted by 427 votes to 162. Also during the readings were motions to equalise the age of consent to 17 for all, to maintain the age of consent for homosexual acts to 21, and a further attempt to lower the age of consent to 16, all of which were rejected.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}

In 1997, the European Court of Human Rights case of Sutherland v the United Kingdom held that a higher age of consent for homosexuals than for heterosexuals was a breach of Article 14 in conjunction with Article 8 of the Convention. In response, the Government introduced the Crime and Disorder Bill that contained a provision lowering the age of consent for homosexual acts to 16. Though accepted by the House of Commons, the provision was rejected by the House of Lords. The Sexual Offences (Amendment) Bill, introduced in 1998, contained a similar provision, but once again it was rejected by the House of Lords. The Bill was reintroduced in 2000 and, despite opposition from the House of Lords, was passed under the Parliament Act 1911 (which allows the House of Commons to overrule the House of Lords under certain circumstances). As the Scottish Parliament had been established prior to the reintroduction of the Bill, and the relevant legislation was a devolved issue, the consent of that Parliament under the Sewel Convention was required – had that consent not been granted, the Scottish provisions would have had to be removed and it would not have been possible to use the Parliament Act.

The Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000, became law in January 2001 throughout the UK, and thus equalized, regardless of gender, the age of consent at 16 for both heterosexual and homosexual acts (including, for the first time, lesbian acts), except those taking place between a 16–17 year old and someone "in a position of trust" (e.g. a teacher), where the age of consent was raised to 18.

The Sexual Offences Act 2003 officially ended the concept of buggery in British law, as technically, heterosexual anal intercourse had still been illegal until the passing of this law. The passing of this law meant that there was no legal difference made between vaginal and anal intercourse, as well as sexual touching and newly added oral penetration and penetration by other body parts than penis or anything else. The Act also raised the legal age for pornography and prostitution from 16 to 18.

There have been various suggestions to lower the age of consent to 14 – in 1998 the New Labour government proposed this, but despite some Left wing and Youth support this had been dropped by early 2003 as lacking support, a decade later in early 2013 the suggestion by civil servants to lower the age of consent to 14 was rejected by the Conservative led coalition as offensive (at least under some circumstances) and attention was drawn to the impact of recent scandals on the reception to any proposals.

If the child is 13–15 inclusive and the other person concerned reasonably believed that she (usually she) was 16 or more no offence is committed. In practice this discourages prosecution where that defence might successfully be run. If a young woman, for example, goes willingly into a pub (saloon) where nobody under 18 can lawfully go the prosecuting authorities will probably decide that the defendant will readily be believed if he says he thought she was 18, let alone 16 or up.

Scotland

Since 1 December 2010, the age of consent in Scotland is 16, regardless of sexual orientation or gender.^[147]^[148] Before that date, it was 16 for girls (under a statutory offence)^[149] and 14 for boys (the common law age of puberty). However, consensual sex with a girl aged between 13 and 16 is not rape, but a lesser offence; on 1 December 2010 this has been given the specific name of "having intercourse with an older child". Aged between 13 and 16 does not include 16, however.

History

Male homosexual acts were illegal in Scotland until 1980 when they were decriminalised by the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 1980, Section 80, which specified an age of consent of 21. The Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995 lowered the age of consent to 18 and this was further lowered to 16 by the Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000 described above. Male rape was recognised along with a complete overhaul of sexual offences legislation under the Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act 2009 (in force from 1 December 2010, except for sections 52 and 53).^[150]

Northern Ireland

The age of consent in Northern Ireland is 16, regardless of sexual orientation or gender, as specified by the Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008.^[151] The reason the age of consent was lowered from 17 to 16 in 2008 with the Order was to bring it in line with the rest of the UK; Criminal Justice Minister Paul Goggins said there was no compelling reason for the age to be different in Northern Ireland than elsewhere.^[152]

History

Prior to 2008, the age of consent in Northern Ireland was always 17 for heterosexuals and lesbian sexual conduct.

Gay male sexual conduct was illegal in Northern Ireland until 1982, when they were decriminalised by the Homosexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 1982, which specified an age of consent of 21 – in line with the rest of the UK at the time. The change was a result of the judgement in the European Court of Human Rights case of Dudgeon v United Kingdom (1981) in which the ECHR held that a prohibition on homosexual acts was a breach of Article 8 of the Convention. The age of consent for gay male sexual conduct was lowered to 18 in 1994 when the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 was implemented (as to be in line with England and Wales). The age of consent in 2001 was then lowered to 17 for gay male sexual conduct - so that was in line with heterosexual and lesbian sexual conduct, by the Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000, Section 1. Then in 2008, the Order mentioned above lowered the age of consent for all individuals to 16 so it was inline with the rest of the UK.

Akrotiri and Dhekelia

For both of these Sovereign Base Areas (British military enclaves) on the island of Cyprus, the age of consent is 16.

Gibraltar

Since 2011, the age of consent is equal and gender-neutral at 16 in Gibraltar (a British overseas territory). The gender-neutral Crimes Bill 2011 passed the Gibraltar Parliament and got assented - implementing the 2011 Supreme Court of Gibraltar decision and by repealing and updating 140-year-old criminal laws of Gibraltar.^[153]

History

Male homosexual acts have been decriminalised in Gibraltar since 1993, where the age of consent was higher at 18 for gay men, 16 for lesbians and heterosexuals. Anal sex was illegal for heterosexuals regardless. An equal age of consent set at 16 and legalising heterosexual anal sex happened because of a Supreme Court decision in 2011.^[154] Then in 2011, the gender-neutral Crimes Act 2011 implemented an equal and gender-neutral age of consent of 16 and legalised anal sex for heterosexuals - reflecting the Supreme Court of Gibraltar's decision and by repealing and updating 140-year-old criminal laws of Gibraltar.^[153]

Guernsey (including Alderney, Herm and Sark)

Since 2012, the age of consent in the Bailiwick of Guernsey (a Crown Dependency including Alderney, Herm and Sark) is 16, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation.^[155]

History

In 1983, male homosexual acts were decriminalised with the age of consent set at 21 (in line with the UK at that time). In 1999, the age of consent for male homosexual acts was lowered to 18. Then in 2012, the age of consent for male homosexual acts was equalised at 16, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation.^[155]

Isle of Man

The age of consent in the Isle of Man, a Crown Dependency, is 16, last amended in 2006.^[156]

History

Prior to 1992, sodomy was illegal, then under the Sexual Offences (Isle Of Man) Act 1992 (after assent) the age of consent was set at 21 for sodomy (in line with the UK at that time). Then in 2001, the age of consent for male homosexual acts was lowered to 18 under the Criminal Justice Act 2001.^[157] In 2006, under the Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2006^[158] the age of consent was lowered to 16, and became gender-neutral for all sexual conduct, regardless of sexual orientation or gender.

Jersey

The age of consent in the Bailiwick of Jersey, a Crown Dependency, is 16, last amended in 2007.^[159]

History

Prior to 1990, sodomy was illegal^[160] in Jersey for both men and women until 1990 although the age of consent for homosexual acts other than sodomy was the same as for heterosexual acts. In 1990, the age of consent for sodomy between consenting males was set at 21 (the UK at that time maintained the age of consent of 21 for all homosexual acts between males).^[161] In 1995, the sodomy age of consent became 18 (under the Sexual Offences (Jersey) Law 1995). In 2007, the age of consent was lowered to 16, became gender-neutral for all sexual conduct (including sodomy); regardless of sexual orientation or gender.^[162]

Vatican City

Law No. VIII of 11 July 2013, entitled "Supplementary Laws on Criminal Law Matters" establishes the present law for the State of Vatican City regarding criminal penalties for sexual acts with minors. Article 4 of Law No. VIII defines "minor" for the purposes of that law to mean "every human being below the age of eighteen years." Article 8, paragraphs 1 through 4, establish criminal penalties for anyone who engages in sexual acts with a person below the age of 18. Paragraph 5 of Article 8 provides an exception to this by stating that "the offence does not exist if the sexual acts take place within a marriage."^[163] Canon 1083 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law states that "A man before he has completed his sixteenth year of age and a woman before she has completed her fourteenth year of age cannot enter into a valid marriage."^[164] Thus, in the context of this article, the age of consent in Vatican City may be considered 14 for married females who are having sexual relations with their husbands only, 16 for married males having relations with their wives only, but 18 for everyone else, whether married or not.

It should also be noted that the "Law of the Source of Law" of the Vatican State requires that any local laws must first defer to divine law, to Papal decrees, and to canon law. As the Vatican understands divine law, even if not sanctioned with criminal penalties by the state, all sex outside of marriage is illicit regardless of the age or willingness of those who engage in it.

When the Vatican City was first formed, it adopted the then-Italian age of consent of 12 as per the Lateran Treaty of 1929. Until July 2013 it had the lowest age of consent in Europe, but after that month, when the Pope made his decree, it became the highest.^[45]

See also

References

1. ^¹{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-25918330 |title=BBC News - Northern Cyprus lifts ban on gay sex |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2014-01-27 |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
2. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/treaties/Html/201.htm|title=Liste complète|publisher=}}
3. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/201/signatures |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-01-05 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222194134/http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/201/signatures |archivedate=22 December 2016 |df=dmy }}
4. ^{{cite web |title=Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography" |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32011L0093 |website=EUR-Lex |accessdate=16 June 2018}}
5. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1565/file/d46a10bcf55b80aae189eb6840b4.htm/preview|title=CRIMINAL CODE OF THE REPUBLIC OF ALBANIA|accessdate=11 April 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613054559/http://legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1565/file/d46a10bcf55b80aae189eb6840b4.htm/preview |archivedate=2010-06-13}}
6. ^https://sherloc.unodc.org/res/cld/document/codi_penal_andorra_as_of_2014_html/Andorra_codi_penal_as_of_2014.pdf
7. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Dokumente/Bundesnormen/NOR40023134/NOR40023134.html |title=RIS Dokument |publisher=Ris.bka.gv.at |date=2013-07-31 |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
8. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Dokumente/Bundesnormen/NOR40093644/NOR40093644.html |title=RIS Dokument |publisher=Ris.bka.gv.at |date=2009-08-31 |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
9. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Dokumente/Bundesnormen/NOR40033821/NOR40033821.html |title=RIS Dokument |publisher=Ris.bka.gv.at |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
10. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaAzerbaijan.pdf |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20080229152337/http%3A//www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaAzerbaijan.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2008-02-29 |title=Internet / Home - INTERPOL |publisher= }}
11. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.legislationline.org/legislations.php?jid=7<id=15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927182826/http://www.legislationline.org/legislations.php?jid=7<id=15 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2007-09-27 |title=Belarus Criminal Code |language=Russian |work=National register of legal acts of Byelorussia |year=2005 |at=paragraph № 74, 2/1112 |publisher=legislationline.org }}
12. ^Article 372 of the Criminal Code (Code pénal, in French) {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203060924/http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi_loi/loi_a1.pl?DETAIL=1867060801%2FF&caller=list&row_id=1&numero=2&rech=4&cn=1867060801&table_name=LOI&nm=1867060850&la=F&dt=CODE%20PENAL&language=fr&fr=f&choix1=ET&choix2=ET&fromtab=loi_all&trier=promulgation&chercher=t&sql=dt%20contains%20%20%27CODE%27&%20%27PENAL%27and%20actif%20=%20%27Y%27&tri=dd%20AS%20RANK%20&imgcn.x=41&imgcn.y=12 |date=3 December 2016 }}
13. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi_loi/change_lg.pl?language=nl&la=N&cn=1867060801&table_name=wet|title=LOI - WET|publisher=}}
14. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1661/file/5863a4917995d1a282d020fb2715.htm/preview |title=5863a4917995d1a282d020fb2715.htm |publisher=Legislationline.org |date= |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
15. ^¹²³{{cite web|url=http://www.legislationline.org/documents/section/criminal-codes |title=Criminal codes |publisher=Legislationline.org |date= |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
16. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.zakon.hr/z/98/Kazneni-zakon |title=Croatian Criminal Code (in Croatian) |publisher=Zakon.hr |date= |accessdate=19 February 2013}}
17. ^{{cite news |author=George Psyllides|title=Gays Ruling 'Too Little, Too Late'|work=Cyprus Mail|date=6 July 2002}}
18. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cylaw.org/nomoi/enop/non-ind/0_154/index.html |title=Ο περί Ποινικού Κώδικα Νόμος - ΚΕΦ.154 |publisher=Cylaw.org |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
19. ^117/1852 Ř.z., Zákon trestní o zločinech, přečinech a přestupcích: § 128 Zprznění
20. ^{{cite web|url=http://trestni.juristic.cz/489540/oddil/trzo |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2007-04-10 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517051618/http://trestni.juristic.cz/489540/oddil/trzo |archivedate=17 May 2011 |df=dmy }}
21. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/r0710.aspx?id=181992#idfb7ca177-33f0-4332-902c-cad2d4cb86c2|title=Bekendtgørelse af straffeloven|last=|first=|date=2016-07-04|website=www.retsinformation.dk|publisher=|access-date=2016-08-12}}
22. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.iub.edu/~kinsey/ccies/dk.php|title=CCIES at The Kinsey Institute: Denmark|publisher=}}
23. ^¹Straffelovrådets betænkning om seksualforbrydelser (September 2012). Kapitel 23: Straffelovens § 235 – børnepornografi {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425183829/http://jm.schultzboghandel.dk/upload/microsites/jm/ebooks/bet1534/bet/kap23.html |date=25 April 2016 }}. Danish Ministry of Justice.
24. ^DR (25 January 2016). [https://www.dr.dk/om-dr/programmer-og-koncerter/candy-film-da-boerneporno-var-lovlig Candy Film - da børneporno var lovlig] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617094601/https://www.dr.dk/om-dr/programmer-og-koncerter/candy-film-da-boerneporno-var-lovlig |date=17 June 2016 }}.
25. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legislationline.org/documents/section/criminal-codes|title=Criminal codes - Legislationline|publisher=}}
26. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/1889/en18890039 |title=Finnish Criminal Code |publisher=Finlex.fi |date=29 May 2009 |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
27. ^Haggerty, George Gay Histories and Cultures: An Encyclopedia Garland Publishing Inc. 2000 New York, New York page 325.
28. ^Barclay, Scott Bernstein Mary Marshall, Anna-Maria Queer Mobilizations: LGBT Activists Confront the Law New York University Press 2009 page 129.
29. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do;jsessionid=B2410A60B956150F3AA2051DEC9E931D.tpdila22v_1?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006418101&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006070719&dateTexte=20160306 |title=French Penal Code, Article 227-25 |publisher=legifrance.gouv.fr |date= |accessdate=5 March 2016}}
30. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do;jsessionid=9F36A2427FB791A33D298566CE2E9CFB.tpdila22v_1?idArticle=LEGIARTI000027811128&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006070719&dateTexte=20160306 |title=French Penal Code, Article 227-22 |publisher=legifrance.gouv.fr |date= |accessdate=5 March 2016}}
31. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do;jsessionid=9F36A2427FB791A33D298566CE2E9CFB.tpdila22v_1?idArticle=LEGIARTI000006418086&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006070719&dateTexte=20160306 |title=French Penal Code, Article 227-22-1 |publisher=legifrance.gouv.fr |date= |accessdate=5 March 2016}}
32. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006070719&idArticle=LEGIARTI000006418110&dateTexte=&categorieLien=cid/preview |title=French Penal Code |publisher=legifrance.gouv.fr |date= |accessdate=5 August 2013}}
33. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.humanrights.ge/files/crcreport.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2010-07-30 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307204223/http://www.humanrights.ge/files/crcreport.pdf |archivedate=7 March 2012 |df=dmy }}
34. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_stgb/englisch_stgb.html#StGB_000P182 |title=German Criminal Code |publisher=Gesetze-im-internet.de |date= |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
35. ^{{cite web|url=http://dejure.org/gesetze/StGB/176.html|title=§ 176 StGB Sexueller Mißbrauch von Kindern - dejure.org|publisher=}}
36. ^all older versions and changes of § 175 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210011422/http://lexetius.com/StGB/175 |date=10 December 2016 }} (Homosexual acts); current and all older versions and changes of § 176 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314215141/http://lexetius.com/StGB/176 |date=14 March 2016 }} (Sexual abuse of children); current and all older versions and changes of § 182 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207163904/http://lexetius.com/StGB/182 |date=7 February 2015 }} (Sexual abuse of juveniles; until 1994: Seduction). See also Recht, was ist erlaubt? (What is permitted?) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053119/http://piology.org/dtl/recht.html |date=4 March 2016 }} Comparison of AOC laws in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.
37. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.freelaw.gr/pk|title=Ποινικός Κώδικας - www.freelaw.gr|publisher=}}
38. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.et.gr/idocs-nph/search/pdfViewerForm.html?args%3D5C7QrtC22wE4q6ggiv8WTXdtvSoClrL8RZsdmVE36E95MXD0LzQTLWPU9yLzB8V68knBzLCmTXKaO6fpVZ6Lx3UnKl3nP8NxdnJ5r9cmWyJWelDvWS_18kAEhATUkJb0x1LIdQ163nV9K--td6SIuVoHeYO-VoUaxueGay4CXn5RDBq72FoViJdyfkM3t-nE |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-12-25 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505165739/http://www.et.gr/idocs-nph/search/pdfViewerForm.html?args=5C7QrtC22wE4q6ggiv8WTXdtvSoClrL8RZsdmVE36E95MXD0LzQTLWPU9yLzB8V68knBzLCmTXKaO6fpVZ6Lx3UnKl3nP8NxdnJ5r9cmWyJWelDvWS_18kAEhATUkJb0x1LIdQ163nV9K--td6SIuVoHeYO-VoUaxueGay4CXn5RDBq72FoViJdyfkM3t-nE |archivedate=5 May 2016 |df=dmy }}
39. ^{{cite web|author=Complex Kiadó Kft. |url=http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A1200100.TV |title=2012. évi C. törvény - a Büntető Törvénykönyvről |publisher=Net.jogtar.hu |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
40. ^(Icelandic) The Icelandic Penal Code {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317171939/http://www.althingi.is/lagas/135a/1940019.html |date=17 March 2016 }}: 202. gr. Hver sem hefur samræði eða önnur kynferðismök við barn, yngra en 15[fimmtán] ára, skal sæta fangelsi ekki skemur en 1[eitt] ár og allt að 16[sextán] árum.:: Section 202 Anyone who has carnal intercourse or other sexual intimacy with a child younger than 15 years shall be subject to imprisonment for at least 1 year and up to 16 years.
41. ^{{cite web|url=http://visindavefur.hi.is/svar.php?id=3683 |title=Hver er samræðisaldur á Íslandi? |trans-title="What is the age of consent in Iceland?"|language=Icelandic}}
42. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/socialcharter/reporting/statereports/Iceland24_en.pdf|title=La Charte sociale européenne|publisher=}}
43. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/justice/criminal_law/criminal_offences/law_on_sex_offences_in_ireland.html|title=The law on sexual offences in Ireland|work=Citizens Information|publisher=Citizens Information Board|accessdate=12 June 2013|location=Dublin, Ireland|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628040525/http://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/justice/criminal_law/criminal_offences/law_on_sex_offences_in_ireland.html|archivedate=28 June 2013|df=dmy-all}}
44. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2006/en/act/pub/0015/print.html |title=Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2006 |date=2 June 2006 |work=Irish Statute Book |accessdate=12 June 2013}}
45. ^¹O'Dwyer, Peter. "The age of consent debate: Where does Ireland stand?" ([https://www.webcitation.org/6eViNkQOU?url=http://www.irishexaminer.com/lifestyle/features/the-age-of-consent-debate-where-does-ireland-stand-264694.html Archive]). Irish Examiner. April 9, 2014. Retrieved on January 14, 2016.
46. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2017/act/2/enacted/en/html|title=electronic Irish Statute Book (eISB)|first=electronic Irish Statute Book|last=(eISB)|website=www.irishstatutebook.ie|accessdate=15 March 2018}}
47. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2017/act/2/section/17/enacted/en/html#sec17|title=Sexual act with child under 17 years of age|first=electronic Irish Statute Book|last=(eISB)|website=www.irishstatutebook.ie|accessdate=15 March 2018}}
48. ^{{jstor|30095398}}
49. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1935/en/act/pub/0006/print.html|title=Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1935|work=Irish Statute Book|accessdate=12 June 2013}}
50. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.lawreform.ie/_fileupload/consultation%20papers/cpChildSexAbuse.htm|title=Consultation Paper on Child Sexual Abuse|date=August 1989|publisher=Law Reform Commission|pages=54, 60–78, 204–5|accessdate=21 June 2013|location=Dublin}}
51. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.lawreform.ie/_fileupload/Reports/rChildSexAbuse.htm|title=Report on Child Sexual Abuse|date=September 1990|publisher=Law Reform Commission|pages=34–49, 90–93|accessdate=21 June 2013|location=Dublin}}
52. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1993/en/act/pub/0020/print.html|title=Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act, 1993|work=Irish Statute Book|accessdate=12 June 2013}}
53. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.courts.ie/judgments.nsf/09859e7a3f34669680256ef3004a27de/877f6b6773b3dcee80257177003c6586?OpenDocument|title=C.C. -v Ireland & ors [2006] IESC 33|date=23 May 2006|publisher=Irish Courts Service|accessdate=12 June 2013}}
54. ^{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/dail/2006/06/02/00004.asp#N112|title=Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Bill 2006: Second Stage.|date=2 June 2006|work=Dáil Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol. 621 No. 1 p.4 c.12|accessdate=21 June 2013}}
55. ^{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/seanad/2006/06/02/00005.asp#N27|title=Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Bill 2006: Second Stage.|date=2 June 2006|work=Seanad Éireann debates|publisher=Oireachtas|pages=Vol. 183 No. 22 p.5 c.1786|accessdate=21 June 2013}}
56. ^{{cite book |url=http://www.oireachtas.ie/documents/committees29thdail/committeereport2006/Child_Protection_Report.pdf#page=98 |title=Report on Child Protection |format=PDF |author=Joint Committee on Child Protection |date=November 2006 |publisher=Oireachtas |pages=94–95 |accessdate=17 December 2013 |location=Dublin |series=Official publications |volume=Prn.A6/2024 |chapter=17.2. Recommendations: The Age of Consent}}
57. ^{{cite web|url=http://debates.oireachtas.ie/committees/2006/CP.asp|title=Committee on Child Protection|year=2006|work=Oireachtas debates|accessdate=17 December 2013}}
58. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.diritto.it/codici/titolo/75-codice-penale-dei-delitti-contro-la-persona|title=Codice penale :: DEI DELITTI CONTRO LA PERSONA :: Diritto & Diritti|publisher=}}
59. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaItaly.asp |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20010925003359/http%3A//www.interpol.int/public/children/sexualabuse/nationallaws/csaitaly.asp |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2001-09-25 |title=Internet / Home - INTERPOL |publisher= }}
60. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1681/file/ca1cfb8a67f8a1c2ffe8de6554a3.htm/preview |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613061051/http://legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1681/file/ca1cfb8a67f8a1c2ffe8de6554a3.htm/preview |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2010-06-13 |title=ca1cfb8a67f8a1c2ffe8de6554a3.htm |publisher=Legislationline.org |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17 }}
61. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/Criminal%20Code.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-08-18 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304115712/http://www.assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/Criminal%20Code.pdf |archivedate=4 March 2016 |df=dmy }}
62. ^{{cite web|title=Krimināllikums|url=http://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=88966|website=likumi.lv}} (Latvian original text)
63. ^ {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613060304/http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1683/file/4b5d86c3826746957aa400893abc.htm/preview |date=13 June 2010 }}
64. ^{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/CRC/docs/study/responses/Liechtenstein.pdf |title=Microsoft Word - Liechtenstein.doc |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
65. ^¹{{Cite web|url=http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=377767&p_tr2=2|title=Lietuvos Respublikos Seimas - Dokumento tekstas|website=www3.lrs.lt|access-date=2016-08-19}}
66. ^{{cite web|url=http://infolex.lt/portal/start_ta.asp?act=doc&fr=pop&doc=66150 |title=LR baudžiamasis kodeksas (BK) |publisher=Infolex.Lt |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
67. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/eur/154435.htm |title=Country Report on Human Rights Practices in Lithuania |publisher=State.gov |date=2011-04-08 |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
68. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/textescoordonnes/codes/index.html#code_penal |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2006-04-17 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221084603/http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/textescoordonnes/codes/index.html |archivedate=21 December 2016 |df=dmy }}
69. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.aspx?app=lom&itemid=8574 |format=PDF |title=Criminal Code Chapter 9, 10 June 1854 - last amended III of 2004 |publisher=Ministry for Justice, Culture and Local Government }}
70. ^{{cite web |url=http://docs.justice.gov.mt/lom/legislation/english/leg/vol_2/chapt16.pdf |format=PDF |title=CHAPTER 16 CIVIL CODE |publisher= Docs.justice.gov.mt}}
71. ^{{cite web |url=http://docs.justice.gov.mt/SENTENZI2000_PDF/MALTA/TAL-MAGISTRATI%20(GUDIKATURA%20KRIMINALI)/2008/2008-09-25_568-2005_50759.PDF |format=PDF |title=IL-PULIZIJA SPETTUR LOUISE CALLEJA VS. GIUSEPPE ZAMMIT, Numru 568/2005, 2008-09-28 |work= QORTI TAL-MAGISTRATI (MALTA) BHALA QORTI TA' GUDIKATURA KRIMINALI (Court of magistrates (Malta) as a court of criminal judicature) |publisher=Docs.justice.gov.mt}}
72. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com.mt/articles/view/20080423/local/ex-religion-teacher-confesses-to-defilement-via-sms |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2008-10-08 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113052345/http://www.timesofmalta.com.mt/articles/view/20080423/local/ex-religion-teacher-confesses-to-defilement-via-sms |archivedate=13 November 2010 |df=dmy }}
73. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20080428/local/brothers-acquitted-of-defiling-girl |title=Brothers acquitted of defiling girl |publisher=timesofmalta.com |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
74. ^{{cite web |url=http://docs.justice.gov.mt/SENTENZI2000_PDF/MALTA/TAL-MAGISTRATI%20(GUDIKATURA%20KRIMINALI)/2008/2008-04-23_914-2004_48886.PDF |format=PDF |title=POLICE INSPECTOR TEREZA SCIBERRAS, INSPECTOR RAYMOND AQUILINA VS. SEBASTIAN FRANCIS De BONO, ZACHARY De BONO, Number 914/2004, 2008-04-23 |work= COURT OF MAGISTRATES (MALTA) AS A COURT OF CRIMINAL JUDICATURE |publisher=Docs.justice.gov.mt}}
75. ^{{cite web |url=http://docs.justice.gov.mt/SENTENZI2000_PDF/MALTA/TA'%20L-APPELLI%20KRIMINALI%20(INFERJURI)/2007/2007-06-11_170-2007_43765.PDF |format=PDF |title=The Police v. Arshad Nawaz, Criminal Appeal Number. 170/2007, 2007-06-11 |work= MALTA - COURT OF CRIMINAL APPEAL |publisher=Docs.justice.gov.mt}}
76. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com.mt/articles/view/20080902/local/man-accused-of-defilement |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2008-10-08 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216114916/http://www.timesofmalta.com.mt/articles/view/20080902/local/man-accused-of-defilement |archivedate=16 December 2008 |df=dmy }}
77. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com.mt/articles/view/20080827/local/three-admit-indecent-acts |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2008-10-08 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216114905/http://www.timesofmalta.com.mt/articles/view/20080827/local/three-admit-indecent-acts |archivedate=16 December 2008 |df=dmy }}
78. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com.mt/articles/view/20080822/local/hotel-manager-charged-with-defiling-boy-14 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2008-10-08 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101119045509/http://www.timesofmalta.com.mt/articles/view/20080822/local/hotel-manager-charged-with-defiling-boy-14 |archivedate=19 November 2010 |df=dmy }}
79. ^¹{{cite web |first=Christian |last=Attard |url= http://www.law.leiden.edu/general/img/Malta%20-%20Summary%20of%20legislation%202006_tcm19-55172.pdf |format=PDF |title=Summary of legislation implementing "Directive 2000/78/EC establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation" with respect to sexual orientation in Malta |year= 2005 |publisher=Law.leiden.edu}}
80. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.aspx?app=lp&itemid=29057&l=1 |format=PDF |title=Gender-Based Violence and Domestic Violence Act, 2018" |publisher= Docs.justice.gov.mt}}
81. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaMonaco.pdf |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20080229151443/http%3A//www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaMonaco.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2008-02-29 |title=Internet / Home - INTERPOL |publisher= }}
82. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legislationline.org/documents/action/popup/id/4168/preview|title=Legislationline|publisher=}}
83. ^{{cite web|url=http://wetten.overheid.nl/cgi-bin/deeplink/law1/title=WETBOEK%20VAN%20STRAFRECHT/article=245/ |title=wetten.nl - Wet- en regelgeving - Wetboek van Strafrecht - BWBR0001854 |language=nl |publisher=Wetten.overheid.nl |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
84. ^{{cite web|url=http://wetten.overheid.nl/cgi-bin/deeplink/law1/title=WETBOEK%20VAN%20STRAFRECHT/article=247/ |title=wetten.nl - Wet- en regelgeving - Wetboek van Strafrecht - BWBR0001854 |language=nl |publisher=Wetten.overheid.nl |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
85. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.juridischkennisportaal.nl/wiki/strafrecht/ontucht-cq-feitelijke-aanranding/jurisprudentie-ontucht-leeftijdsverschil.htm |title=Jurisprudentie ontucht - leeftijdsverschil - Juridisch kennisportaal |publisher=Juridischkennisportaal.nl |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
86. ^{{cite book|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=yit1CY_4BRMC }} |title=Regulating sex: the politics of intimacy and identity – Elizabeth Bernstein, Laurie Schaffner |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2012-03-19}}
87. ^Evans, David T. (1993). Sexual Citizenship: The Material Construction of Sexualities, p. 208. Routledge, London. {{ISBN|0-415-05799-X}}.
88. ^{{cite web|author=Al Heigl, Webmaster |url=http://www.ipt-forensics.com/journal/volume1/j1_1_6.htm |title=IPT Journal - "Mass Hysteria in Oude Pekela" |publisher=Ipt-forensics.com |date=2014-04-15 |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
89. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legislationline.org/documents/action/popup/id/8892/preview|title=Legislationline|publisher=}}
90. ^{{cite web|url=https://lovdata.no/dokument/NLE/lov/2005-05-20-28|title=The Penal Code - Lovdata|website=lovdata.no|accessdate=15 March 2018}}
91. ^{{cite web|author=Apollon Postboks 1076 Blindern |url=http://www.apollon.uio.no/bokanmeldelser/2000/homoseksualitet.html |title=Homoseksualitet mellom fortielse og straff |language=no |publisher=Apollon |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
92. ^no:Konkubinatparagrafen {{Better source|date=February 2014}}
93. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.lovdata.no/all/tl-19020522-010-023.html#196/00_Norway_Penal%20Code.asp |title=Lovdata - Sender deg til riktig side |publisher=Lovdata.no |date=1902-05-22 |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
94. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.ub.uio.no/ujur/ulovdata/lov-19020522-010-eng.pdf |format=PDF |title=Quotations taken from the Ministry of Justice's (unofficial translation), though updated with current (September 2012) changes in the code |publisher=Ub.uio.no}}
95. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.regjeringen.no/en/archive/Stoltenbergs-2nd-Government/Ministry-of-Agriculture-and-Food/Nyheter-og-pressemeldinger/nyheter/2009/new-animal-welfare-act-.html?id=562543 |title=New Animal Welfare Act |work=regjeringen.no |date=15 May 2009 |accessdate=13 July 2014}}
96. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.era.int/domains/corpus-juris/public_pdf/polish_penal_code2.pdf |title=Part 2 of the unofficial English translation of the Polish Criminal Code |work=Academy of European Law |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070413010314/http://www.era.int/domains/corpus-juris/public_pdf/polish_penal_code2.pdf |archivedate=13 April 2007 |accessdate=17 April 2012}}
97. ^{{cite web|url=http://isip.sejm.gov.pl/servlet/Search?todo=file&id=WDU19970880553&type=3&name=D19970553Lj.pdf |format=PDF |title=Polish Criminal Code |language=Polish |publisher=Isip.sejm.gov.pl |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524012944/http://isip.sejm.gov.pl/servlet/Search?todo=file&id=WDU19970880553&type=3&name=D19970553Lj.pdf |archivedate=24 May 2006 }}
98. ^{{Cite web|url=https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Małoletni|title=Explaining the meaning of "minor" in the penal code|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}
99. ^{{Cite web|url=http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19640160093/U/D19640093Lj.pdf|title=Polish Civil Code|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}
100. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.avert.org/aofconsent.htm |title=Worldwide Ages of Consent |publisher=Avert.org |date=3 November 2011 |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
101. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.avocatura.com/ll491-noul-cod-penal.html |title=Noul Cod Penal (2014) |language=ro |publisher=Avocatura.com |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
102. ^{{cite web|url=http://lege5.ro/Gratuit/g42tamju/codul-penal-din-1864|title=Codul Penal din 1864|first=Indaco|last=Systems|publisher=}}
103. ^{{cite web|url=http://lege5.ro/Gratuit/heztqnzu/codul-penal-din-1936|title=Codul Penal din 1936|first=Indaco|last=Systems|publisher=}}
104. ^{{cite web|url=http://lege5.ro/Gratuit/he2demzw/codul-penal-din-1968|title=Codul Penal din 1968|first=Indaco|last=Systems|publisher=}}
105. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/1103 |title=Soviet Medicine: Culture, Practice, and Science | Reviews in History |publisher=History.ac.uk |date= |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
106. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cyberussr.com/rus/uk136-e.html |title=Criminal Code of the RSFSR (1934), Articles 136-161 |publisher=Cyberussr.com |date= |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
107. ^{{cite book|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=Nx0gnXpMbnsC |page=14 }} |title=Soviet Criminal Law and Procedure: The RSFSR Codes - Russian S.F.S.R. |publisher= |date= |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
108. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.consultant.ru/online/base/?req=doc;base=LAW;n=18831;p=5#p1073 |title="Уголовный кодекс Российской Федерации" от 13.06.1996 N 63-ФЗ (ред. от 27.05.1998) |publisher=Consultant.ru |date= |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
109. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.consultant.ru/online/base/?req=doc;base=LAW;n=45566#p29 |title=Федеральный закон от 25.06.1998 N 92-ФЗ (ред. от 08.12.2003) "О внесении изменений и дополнений в Уголовный кодекс Российской Федерации" |publisher=Consultant.ru |date=25 June 1998 |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
110. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.consultant.ru/online/base/?req=doc;base=LAW;n=57610;p=1#p243 |title=Федеральный закон от 08.12.2003 N 162-ФЗ (ред. от 05.01.2006) "О внесении изменений и дополнений в Уголовный кодекс Российской Федерации" |publisher=Consultant.ru |date=13 June 1996 |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
111. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.consultant.ru/popular/ukrf/|title="Уголовный кодекс Российской Федерации" от 13.06.1996 N 63-ФЗ (ред. от 06.07.2016) / КонсультантПлюс|publisher=}}
112. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.consultant.ru/popular/ukrf/10_26.html |title=ПРЕСТУПЛЕНИЯ ПРОТИВ ПОЛОВОЙ НЕПРИКОСНОВЕННОСТИ И ПОЛОВОЙ СВОБОДЫ ЛИЧНОСТИ - Уголовный кодекс РФ (УК РФ) от 13.06.1996 N 63-ФЗ \\ Консультант Плюс |publisher=Consultant.ru |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
113. ^{{cite web|author=18.05.2005 |url=http://english.pravda.ru/society/stories/18-05-2005/8262-pregnancy-0/ |title=11-year-old child expects a baby in Moscow |publisher=English pravda.ru |date=2005-05-18 |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
114. ^{{cite web|author=Автор: НАГАЙЦЕВА Ольга |url=http://kp.by/daily/24018/88459/ |title=Судьба родившей 11-летки Вали Исаевой: "Супруг" живет на детское пособие и требует, чтобы Валя бросила школу. Часть 2 // KP.RU |publisher=Kp.by |date= |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
115. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/898586b1dc7b4043c1256a450044f331/1bdcfbc31d86f66bc1256da600366876/$FILE/G0340784.pdf|title=unhchr.ch - unhchr Resources and Information.|publisher=}}
116. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRC/Documents/Written%20Replies/wr-sanmarino-1.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2010-09-16 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064835/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRC/Documents/Written%20Replies/wr-sanmarino-1.pdf |archivedate=4 March 2016 |df=dmy }}
117. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/901/file/576c23dc41967e427086bf4c2b45.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613061222/http://legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/901/file/576c23dc41967e427086bf4c2b45.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2010-06-13 |format=PDF |title=Serbian Criminal Code in English (translated by the OSCE mission to Serbia in February 2006) |publisher=Legislationline.org }}
118. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/CsaSlovakia.pdf |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20080229152458/http%3A//www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/CsaSlovakia.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2008-02-29 |title=Internet / Home - INTERPOL |publisher= }}
119. ^Interpol - National Laws - Slovenia interpol.int
120. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2015/03/31/pdfs/BOE-A-2015-3439.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-08-25 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730054950/http://boe.es/boe/dias/2015/03/31/pdfs/BOE-A-2015-3439.pdf |archivedate=30 July 2016 |df=dmy }}
121. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://radiointereconomia.com/2015/07/01/las-20-claves-del-nuevo-codigo-penal/|title=Las 20 claves del nuevo Código Penal|date=1 July 2015|publisher=|access-date=25 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025235807/http://radiointereconomia.com/2015/07/01/las-20-claves-del-nuevo-codigo-penal/|archive-date=25 October 2016|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}
122. ^{{Cite web |url=http://www.enciclopedia-juridica.biz14.com/d/acceso-carnal/acceso-carnal.htm |title=Acceso carnal |last=Enciclopedia-juridica.biz14.com |website=www.enciclopedia-juridica.biz14.com |language=es |access-date=2017-12-06}}legal definition of "acceso carnal"
123. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.es/videos-espana/20150630/entra-vigor-llamada-mordaza-4330498762001.html|title=Entra en vigor la llamada ley mordaza|publisher=}}
124. ^[https://www.government.se/contentassets/5315d27076c942019828d6c36521696e/swedish-penal-code.pdf Swedish penal code] sweden.gov.
125. ^{{cite web|url=https://lagen.nu/1962:700#K2P2S4 |title=Brottsbalk (1962:700) (BrB) |publisher=Lagen.nu |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
126. ^{{cite web|url=https://lagen.nu/1962:700#K6P6S1 |title=Brottsbalk (1962:700) (BrB) |publisher=Lagen.nu |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
127. ^Criminally queer: Homosexuality and criminal law in Scandinavia, 1842–1999. Amsterdam: Aksant 2007
128. ^¹²{{cite web|url=http://www.thelocal.se/20090121/17058|title=Swedish national library in child porn scandal|date=21 January 2009|publisher=}}
129. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/311_0/a187.html |title=RS 311.0 Code pénal suisse du 21 décembre 1937 |publisher=Admin.ch |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
130. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.admin.ch/ch/d/sr/311_0/a187.html |title=SR 311.0 Schweizerisches Strafgesetzbuch vom 21. Dezember 1937 |publisher=Admin.ch |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
131. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.admin.ch/ch/i/rs/311_0/a187.html |title=RS 311.0 Codice penale svizzero del 21 dicembre 1937 |publisher=Admin.ch |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
132. ^¹{{cite web|title=Turkish Penal Code|url=http://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/MevzuatMetin/1.5.5237.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=Mevzuat.gov.tr.|accessdate=3 July 2014|language=Turkish}}
133. ^{{cite web |url= http://ukrainepravo.com/ukrainian_law/legal-news-in-ukraine-amendments-to-the-criminal-code-judges-qualification-assessment-model-decision/|title= LEGAL NEWS IN UKRAINE: AMENDMENTS TO THE CRIMINAL CODE, JUDGES' QUALIFICATION ASSESSMENT, MODEL DECISION OF THE SUPREME COURT, NEW PROCEDURE OF THE LAWYER'S EXAMINATION, RECALCULATION OF PENSIONS FOR STATE EMPLOYEES|date= 2018-04-21|website= ukraine-pravo.com|publisher= |access-date= 2019-03-28|quote=}}
134. ^{{cite web |url= https://ukranews.com/en/news/558311-poroshenko-signs-law-defining-defines-16-years-as-legal-age-of-consent|title= Poroshenko Signs Law Defining Defines 16 Years As Legal Age Of Consent|date= 2018-04-16|website= Ukrainian News Agency|publisher= |access-date= 2019-03-28| quote=}}
135. ^{{cite web |url= https://112.international/ukraine-top-news/scandalous-law-on-sex-comes-into-force-in-ukraine-35901.html|title= Scandalous law on sex comes into force in Ukraine|date= 2019-01-11|website= 112.international|publisher= 112 Ukraine|access-date= 2019-03-28| quote=}}
136. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1/advice/factfile_az/age_of_consent |title=Age of Consent according to BBC |publisher=www.bbc.co.uk |date= |accessdate=21 August 2012}}
137. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2003/ukpga_20030042_en_2#pt1-pb5-l1g9 |title=Sexual Offences Act 2003 s. 9 |publisher=Opsi.gov.uk |date= |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
138. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/42/contents|title=Sexual Offences Act 2003|publisher=}}
139. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2003/ukpga_20030042_en_2#pt1-pb6-l1g16 |title=Sexual Offences Act 2003 s. 16 |publisher=Opsi.gov.uk |date= |accessdate=11 April 2012}}
140. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/42/section/47 |title=Sexual Offences Act 2003 s. 47 |publisher=UKPGA |date= |accessdate=2 August 2013}}
141. ^{{cite web|author=David Swarbrick |url=http://www.swarb.co.uk/acts/1885Criminal_Law_AmendmentAct.shtml |title=Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 (-) |publisher=swarb.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
142. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/44/contents |title=Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000 |publisher=Legislation.gov.uk |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
143. ^Dafydd Jenkins and Morfydd E. Owen (eds.), The Welsh Law of Women (University of Wales Press, 1980), pp. 48, 71, et seq..
144. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/0/20097046 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-11-30 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727184445/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/0/20097046 |archivedate=27 July 2014 |df=dmy}} Child prostitutes: How the age of consent was raised to 16 - BBC
145. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.historyandpolicy.org/policy-papers/papers/the-legacy-of-1885-girls-and-the-age-of-sexual-consent|title=The legacy of 1885: girls and the age of sexual consent|last=Bates|first=Victoria|date=8 September 2015|website=History & Policy|publisher=History & Policy|access-date=12 July 2016}}
146. ^{{cite web |title=House of Commons Research Paper 99/4 21 January 1999: The Sexual Offences (Amendment) Bill: ‘Age of consent’ and abuse of a position of trust (Bill 10 of 1998–99) |url=http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp99/rp99-004.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=Parliament.uk |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127194954/http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp99/rp99-004.pdf |archivedate=27 November 2007 |df=dmy-all }}
147. ^{{cite news| url=http://news.scotsman.com/politics/Sex-crimes-law--.5463821.jp | location=Edinburgh | work=The Scotsman | title=Sex crimes law gets go-ahead | date=16 July 2009}}
148. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.theinformationdaily.com/2009/07/16/royal-assent-for-sexual-offences-bill |title=Royal Assent for Sexual Offences Bill |publisher=The Information Daily.com |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517213011/http://www.theinformationdaily.com/2009/07/16/royal-assent-for-sexual-offences-bill |archivedate=17 May 2014 |df=dmy-all }}
149. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1995/39/section/5 |title=Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995 |publisher=Legislation.gov.uk |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}
150. ^Scottish Statutory Instruments {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184228/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2010/357/pdfs/ssi_20100357_en.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }} legislation.gov
151. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2008/draft/ukdsi_9780110800936_en_1 |title=The Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008 |publisher=Opsi.gov.uk |date=2013-09-02 |accessdate=2014-05-17 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216064745/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2008/draft/ukdsi_9780110800936_en_1 |archivedate=16 December 2008 |df= }}
152. ^{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/7104052.stm | work=BBC News | title=NI age of consent to be lowered | date=20 November 2007}}
153. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.chronicle.gi/headlines_details.php?id=22526 |title=Gibraltar Chronicle - The Independent Daily First Published 1801 |publisher=Chronicle.gi |date=20 August 2011 |accessdate=11 April 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103130416/http://www.chronicle.gi/headlines_details.php?id=22526 |archivedate=3 November 2013 |df= }}
154. ^http://www.chronicle.gi/headlines_details.php?id=21474 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327061200/http://www.chronicle.gi/headlines_details.php?id=21474 |date=27 March 2012 }}
155. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.guernseylegalresources.gg/article/104112/Sexual-Offences-Bailiwick-of-Guernsey-Amendment-Law-2011|title=Sexual Offences (Bailiwick of Guernsey) (Amendment) Law, 2011|first=|last=Guernsey|publisher=}}
156. ^{{cite web |author=Published on Friday 11 August 2006 10:39 |url=http://www.iomtoday.co.im/news/GAY-SEX-AGE-LOWERED-TO.1689805.jp |archive-url=https://archive.is/20120910121734/http://www.iomtoday.co.im/news/GAY-SEX-AGE-LOWERED-TO.1689805.jp |dead-url=yes |archive-date=10 September 2012 |title=GAY SEX AGE LOWERED TO 16 - Isle of Man News - Isle of Man Today |publisher=Iomtoday.co.im |date=11 August 2006 |accessdate=11 April 2012 }}
157. ^ {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607225541/http://www.gov.im/lib/docs/infocentre/acts/cja2001.pdf |date=7 June 2011 }}
158. ^ {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607225615/http://www.gov.im/lib/docs/infocentre/acts/sexoffences.pdf |date=7 June 2011 }}
159. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.jerseylegalinfo.je/Law/Display.aspx?url=LawsInForce%2fhtm%2flawfiles%2f2007%2fL-02-2007.htm |title=Sexual Offences (Jersey) Law 2007 |publisher=Jerseylegalinfo.je |date=19 January 2007 |accessdate=11 April 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070525205343/http://www.jerseylegalinfo.je/Law/Display.aspx?url=LawsInForce%2Fhtm%2Flawfiles%2F2007%2FL-02-2007.htm |archivedate=25 May 2007 |df=dmy-all }}
160. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.jerseylegalinfo.je/law/display.aspx?url=lawsinforce%2fconsolidated%2f08%2f08.500_SodomieLoi1938_RevisedEdition_31August2004.htm |title=Loi (1938) modifiant le droit criminel (sodomie et bestialité) |publisher=Jerseylegalinfo.je |date= |accessdate=11 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121090229/http://www.jerseylegalinfo.je/law/display.aspx?url=lawsinforce%2Fconsolidated%2F08%2F08.500_SodomieLoi1938_RevisedEdition_31August2004.htm |archive-date=21 January 2008 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}
161. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.jerseylegalinfo.je/Law/display.aspx?URL=lawsinforce%5chtm%5cLawFiles%5c1990%2fJersey_Law_15-1990.htm |title=Jersey Law | SEXUAL OFFENCES (JERSEY) LAW 1990 |publisher=Jerseylegalinfo.je |date=5 May 2006 |accessdate=11 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310235210/http://www.jerseylegalinfo.je/Law/display.aspx?URL=lawsinforce%5Chtm%5CLawFiles%5C1990%2FJersey_Law_15-1990.htm |archive-date=10 March 2008 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}
162. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.jerseylegalinfo.je/Law/Display.aspx?url=LawsInForce%2fhtm%2flawfiles%2f2007%2fL-02-2007.htm |title=Jersey Law | SEXUAL OFFENCES (JERSEY) LAW 2007 |publisher=Jerseylegalinfo.je |date=2007-01-19 |accessdate=2014-05-17 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070525205343/http://www.jerseylegalinfo.je/Law/Display.aspx?url=LawsInForce%2Fhtm%2Flawfiles%2F2007%2FL-02-2007.htm |archivedate=25 May 2007 |df=dmy-all }}
163. ^LAW N. VIII: SUPPLEMENTARY NORMS ON CRIMINAL LAW MATTERS {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805202456/http://www.vaticanstate.va/content/dam/vaticanstate/documenti/leggi-e-decreti/Normative-Penali-e-Amministrative/Law%20N.%20VIII%20-%20Supplementary%20Norms%20on%20Criminal%20Law.pdf |date=5 August 2016 }} vaticanstate.va
164. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P3Y.HTM |title=Code of Canon Law - IntraText |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2014-05-17}}