1. Derivation of genus name

2. Publication of genus name

3. Common names

4. Accepted species

5. Description

6. Horticultural merit as ornamental

7. Use in traditional Chinese medicine
     Physochlaina infundibularis    Physochlaina macrophylla    Physochlaina physaloides   Physochlaina praealta 

8. Use in traditional medicine of Tibet and Mongolia

9. Hallucinogenic use of Physochlaina physaloides in Central Siberia

10. Chemistry

11. Westernmost species : P. orientalis

12. Physochlaina physaloides and P. orientalis

13. Gallery

14. References

Derivation of genus name

The name Physochlaina is a compound of the Greek words φυσα ( phusa ), 'bladder' / 'bubble' / 'inflated thing' and χλαινα ( chlaina ), 'robe' / 'loose outer garment' / 'cloak' / 'wrapper' - giving the meaning 'clad loosely in a puffed-up bladder' - in reference to the calyces of the plants, which become enlarged and sometimes bladder-like in fruit - like those of the much better known Solanaceous genera Physalis, Withania and Nicandra, from which they differ in enclosing, not berries, but box-like pyxidial capsules, like those of Hyoscyamus ( see below ).^[5] The variant spelling Physochlaena - as employed by Professor Eva Schönbeck-Temesy in her section on the Solanaceae for Flora Iranica - appears first on page 737 of Volume 22 of the German-language journal Linnaea for the year 1849.

Publication of genus name

The genus name Physochlaina was first published in 1838 by Scottish botanist George Don ( great-uncle of Monty Don ) on page 470 of volume IV of his four-volume work A General System of Gardening and Botany, often referred to as Gen. Hist. (an abbreviation of the alternative title A General History of the Dichlamydeous Plants) and written between 1832 and 1838. He included in his new genus the two species hitherto known as Hyoscyamus physaloides L. and Hyoscyamus orientalis M. Bieb. - the latter published by Baron Friedrich August Marschall von Bieberstein in his Flora taurico-caucasica of 1808.

Common names

Not being native to Western Europe, plants belonging to the genus Physochlaina have no common name of any antiquity in English, nor have they acquired a more recent common name among English-speaking gardeners, despite the passage of two centuries since their introduction to cultivation in the U.K.

Robert Sweet coined the English name Oriental Henbane for P. orientalis in his work The British Flower Garden in 1823, but this is simply a translation of the ( now obsolete ) name Hyoscyamus orientalis. He further coins the name Purple-flowered Henbane for the Siberian species P. physaloides, but this adds to the confusion, as, not only is the species in question no longer classified as a Henbane ( i.e. Hyoscyamus ) , but there are also a number of ( true ) Hyoscyamus spp. which bear purple flowers - e.g. Hyoscyamus muticus.

There is, however, a common name (age unknown) for Physochlaina in Russian, namely Пузырница (Puzeernitsa) - Bladder plant, qualified Пузырница Физалисовая (Puzeernitsa Phizalisovaya) - Physalis-like Bladder plant in the case of P. physaloides .^[6] The Swedish common name for the genus - Vårbolmört - translates as 'Spring(-flowering) Henbane',^[7] while the Finnish common name Kievarinyrtti means 'Inn Herb'^[8] and the Estonian common name is Ida-vullrohu, meaning 'Eastern Henbane'.^[9]

In the ancient, Iranian language Ossetian, spoken both to the North and the South of the Greater Caucasus range, plants of the genus Physochlaina have the common name Тыппыргæрдæг - approximate pronunciation Tippirgərdəg ( where schwa stands for the unique Ossetian vowel for which the special letter 'æ' had to be created in the Cyrillic alphabet ).^[10][11] (See also page Physochlaina in Wikipedia, language: Ирон).

There are likewise several common names for the Himalayan Physochlaina praealta in the various languages of Nepal, and common names for the genus Physochlaina and the various Physochlaina species of Eastern Asiatic provenance in Standard Chinese (泡囊草属 pao nang cao shu), Tibetan (hun horse), Kazakh (үрмежеміс = (approximately) urmezhemis) Uyghur, Mongolian (garag chig tav) and certain Tungusic languages.^[12]

Accepted species

The Plant List, a joint project of Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and the Missouri Botanical Garden, accepts only six species of the genus:

• Physochlaina capitata A.M. Lu : Xinjiang : Ili River valley region, encompassing Borohoro Mountains and S.W. Tian Shan : Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture (principal settlement Yining City) : Xinyuan County (known as Künes pre-1946) and Gongliu County, growing on grassy slopes and in rock crevices. Corolla : yellow with purple throat. Flowering time April to May and fruiting from May to June.
• Physochlaina infundibularis Kuang : Southeastern and North-Central China : South and West Henan, Qin Mountains of Shaanxi and South Shanxi, growing in valleys and forests at altitude of 800-1600m. Corolla : greenish-yellow, pale purplish at base. Flowering time : March to May and fruiting from May to June.^[13]
• Physochlaina macrocalyx Pascher : Tibet. Little-known species. Corolla entirely yellow (no trace of violet). Not yet observed in fruit. Only description available the original brief one by Adolf Pascher, publisher of species name.
• Physochlaina macrophylla Bonati : South-Central China : W. Sichuan, growing in forests at altitude of 1900-2400m. Corolla purple. Flowering time :June to July and fruiting from July to August.
• Physochlaina physaloides (L.) G. Don : China : Hebei, Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang. Also Kazakhstan, Mongolia and S. Siberia. Grows on grassy slopes and forest margins at around 1000m. Corolla purple. Flowering from April to May and fruiting from May to July.
• Physochlaina praealta (Decne.) Miers : Western Himalaya, N. India, N. Pakistan, Nepal and Tibet, growing on slopes at altitude of 4200-4500m. Corolla yellow with purple or greenish veins. Flowering from June to July and fruiting from July to August.^[14][15]

The others being rejected mostly as synonyms.^[16]

Royal Botanic Gardens Kew Science Plants of the World online, however, accepts also:

• Physochlaina alaica Korotkova ex Kovalevsk : Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan
• Physochlaina albiflora Grubov : Mongolia
• Physochlaina orientalis (M.Bieb.) G. Don : 'Balkan States' (according to Flora of USSR), Armenia and E. Turkey,^[17] Transcaucasia, Iran and W. Central Asia
• Physochlaina semenowii Regel : Meeting point of Xinjiang province of China and easternmost Kazakhstan i.e. Dzungaria - notably the Tarbagatay Mountains (= ' Tarbagan marmot Mountains'), the Dzungarian Alatau ('Trans-Ilian Alatau' - Semenova) and the Tian Shan (including the Borohoro Mountains). Also Kyrgyzstan. Grows in mountains and mountain river valleys. Corolla small (1 cm) tubular and violet. Flowering from May to June.^[18][19]

Description

Perennial herbs, differing in their type of inflorescence - a terminal, cymose panicle or corymbose raceme - from the other five genera of subtribe Hyoscyaminae within tribe Hyoscyameae of the Solanaceae. Flowers pedunculate (not secund, sessile/subsessile as in Hyoscyamus). Calyx lobes subequal or unequal; corolla campanulate (bell-shaped) or infundibuliform (funnel-shaped), lobes subequal or sometimes unequal, imbricate in bud; stamens inserted at the middle of corolla tube; disk conspicuous; fruiting calyx lobes nonspinescent apically (i.e. lacking the spiny points characteristic of the calyces of the related genus Hyoscyamus - the Henbanes), fruiting calyx inflated, bladder-like or campanulate, loosely enclosing the capsular fruit. Fruit a pyxidium (i.e. dry capsule opening by a distinct operculum ( = lid ) - as in the other five genera of the Hyoscyaminae).

Pollen grain polymorphic, usually subspheroidal, oval in polar view, circular-triangular in equatorial view.

Horticultural merit as ornamental

A gifted botanist blessed also with a gardener's eye for beauty, George Don is enthusiastic in his praise for the two plant species for which he created the new genus Physochlaina, noting in his ' A General History... ' of 1838 :

'The species of Physochlaina are extremely desirable plants; being early flowerers, and elegant when in blossom. They will grow in any soil, and are readily propagated by divisions of the root, or by seed. They are well adapted for decorating borders in early spring'.

In regard to the soil type favoured by wild populations, volume 22 of Linnaea (in surprisingly geological vein) provides the observation that Physochlaina orientalis is to be found growing on soils underlain by trachytes (volcanic rocks of a type notably rich in the chemical element potassium, a plant macronutrient essential for the production of flowers and fruit and, in a specifically Solanaceous context, the main ingredient of liquid feed for tomato plants).

Use in traditional Chinese medicine

At least three species of Physochlaina are currently used in traditional Chinese medicine : P. infundibularis, P. physaloides and P. praealta.

Physochlaina infundibularis

漏斗泡囊草 Lou-dou Pao-nang-ts'ao / lou dou pao nang cao (= 'Funnel-shaped Physochlaina '). The inhabitants of the neighbouring provinces of Shaanxi (rendered formerly 'Shensi') and Henan hold P. infundibularis in high esteem as a medicinal plant, regarding it as a kind of ginseng : most unusually for a toxic Solanaceous plant (totally unrelated botanically to the Araliaceous ginseng genus Panax) it is considered to be a 'general tonic' ( = adaptogen). The Chinese element 参 shen (= ginseng) forms a part of two of the common names for the plant, namely 华山参 Hua-shan-shen (= ginseng of Mount Hua) and Je-shen (= hot ginseng - from its hot, sweet, slightly bitter and astringent taste).

As with Panax, it is the fleshy root of Physochlaina infundibularis that forms the drug : the fresh, raw roots are first peeled and then boiled in a sugar solution containing small quantities of three other herbal drugs, before being dried, ready for storage and use. The three drugs added to the boiling solution are the root of Glycyrrhiza uralensis, the rhizome of Ophiopogon japonicus and the fruits of Gardenia jasminoides. This peeling, boiling and addition of 'cooling', 'yin' drugs is undertaken to mitigate the 'heat' / toxicity of the Physochlaina infundibularis roots.

In addition to its use as an adaptogen, P. infundibularis is used (in traditional Chinese medicine) in the treatment of asthma, chronic bronchitis, abdominal pain, palpitations and insomnia and as a sedative. The drug is also used to treat diarrhea of the kind considered in traditional Chinese medicine to be 'diarrhea due to deficiency of vital energy with symptoms of cold'.^[20]

The nomenclatural association of P. infundibularis with Mount Hua - 'West Great Mountain' of the Five Great Mountains of China of Taoism - is an interesting one and merits further study : in common with other mountains regarded in China as numinous/Xian ling, Mount Hua (a precipitous assemblage of five (counted anciently only as three) peaks in the Qin range) is held to be a source of rare medicinal plants and life-prolonging elixirs. Furthermore, at the foot of the West Peak of Mount Hua (known as Lianhua Feng (蓮花峰) or Furong Feng (芙蓉峰), both meaning Lotus Flower Summit) stood, from as early as the second century BCE, a Taoist temple which was the site of shamanic practices undertaken by spirit mediums (see also Wu (shaman)) to contact an (unnamed) God of the Underworld and his minions, believed to dwell in the heart of the mountain.(See also Chinese folk religion).^[21] Tropane-containing, Solanaceous plants (such as Datura and Hyoscyamus spp.) have a long history of use as entheogens in shamanic practices^[22] - including Taoist practices^[23]- and indeed Physochlaina physaloides is known definitely to have been used as an entheogen by certain Tungus tribes ( see section below ), so the possible use of its sister species P. infundibularis in Taoist, shamanic practices at Mount Hua might prove a topic worthy of consideration.

In addition to its being considered a kind of ginseng in its own right, the root of Physochlaina infundibularis ('Physochlainae Radix') is sometimes passed off in the ginseng trade as a substitute for the more costly roots of the true ginsengs Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolius - a dangerous practice which could lead to the (potentially fatal), anticholinergic poisoning of unwitting users of these famous tonics, although the substitution tends to be a feature of local, Chinese (rather than international) trade.^[24]

Physochlaina macrophylla

大叶泡囊草 Da-ye Pao-nang-t'sao / da ye pao nang cao. Like the root Physochlaina infundibularis, that of P. macrophylla has also (apparently) occasionally been passed off as that of Panax in the Chinese ginseng trade : '(The root of) Physochlaina macrophylla Bonati, a native of Honan, China, in appearance is very much like ginseng but slightly red; one should avoid using it as a substitute for ginseng as its alkaloid causes vomiting'.^[25]

Physochlaina physaloides

泡囊草 Pao-nang-ts'ao / pao nang cao (= (common) Physochlaina) is the Standard Chinese name of the widespread species P. physaloides and the drug derived from it, which is used in the traditional medicine of Mongolia. In the traditional systems of medicine in China and Mongolia it is considered to have the effects of 'combatting weakness', 'warming up the stomach', 'soothing the mental condition' and relieving asthma. It is also used for treating 'diarrhea due to deficiency of vital energy with symptoms of cold' and 'cough or asthma caused by excessive phlegm or neurasthenia'.

Note : the medical concept neurasthenia - now largely abandoned in Western medicine - is expressed in Chinese as shenjing shuairuo (simplified Chinese: 神经衰弱), a compound of shenjing 'nervous' and shuairuo 'weakness', and the Chinese condition so described is a culture-bound syndrome encompassing debility, emotional turmoil, excitement, tension-induced pain and sleep disturbances, caused by a depletion of qi ('vital energy') and impaired functioning of the wuzang (= 'five vital organs').^[26][27]

Physochlaina praealta

西藏泡囊草 (H'si-Tsang Pao-nang-ts'ao / xi zang pao nang cao = 'Tibetan Physochlaina ' ) is the Standard Chinese name given both to Physochlaina praealta (Decne) Miers. and the drug prepared from its roots and aerial parts. This has been used in Tibet as a substitute for Tsang-ch'ieh (transliterated also as Zang Qie) - Anisodus tanguticus, more commonly known in China as shān làngdàng (= 山莨菪 = 'mountain henbane'). Unsurprisingly, for a tropane-containing plant, P. praealta has been recognised in India to have the belladonna-like property of causing mydriasis and is also used there as a topical medication in the treatment of boils.^[28]

Use in traditional medicine of Tibet and Mongolia

Physochlaina species have a long history of use in the systems of traditional medicine of Tibet and Mongolia as drugs having powerful anti-inflammatory effects against skin diseases and sexually transmitted diseases, in addition to their beneficial effects - both soothing and energizing - upon nervous disorders.

Hallucinogenic use of Physochlaina physaloides in Central Siberia

Intrepid German naturalist, botanist and geographer Johann Georg Gmelin records in his Reise durch Sibirien of 1752 a remarkable account of the intoxicating properties of Physochlaina physaloides, which bears repetition in its entirety.

On the 11th of August of the year 1738, Gmelin and his fellow explorer Stepan Krasheninnikov were negotiating the cataracts of the lower reaches of the Angara river - then known as the Upper Tunguska - in the Yenisei Basin, when they encountered a waterfall with a curious name :

...we came to Bessanova or Pyanovskaya D. which lies on the left bank of the river, and, two versts down, to another falls - Pyanoy Porog [ Russian : Пьаной Порог : 'The Drunken Rapids' ]...They were christened The Drunken Rapids by the first Yeniseian Cossacks to travel up from Yeniseisk on the stream and pass through them.

His curiosity aroused, Gmelin investigated, and discovered an attractive new species :

This account has given me the opportunity to reveal the identity of the beautiful plant involved, which was unknown to any botanist before me : Hyoscyamus foliis integerrimis calicibus inflatis subglobosis [ Botanical Latin : 'The Henbane having simple, untoothed leaves and ( fruiting ) calyces that are more or less round and inflated' [ i.e. like those of a Physalis ] Linn. h. Ups. 44. 2.

Having identified the ( Linnaean ) genus Hyoscyamus to which the intoxicating plant of The Drunken Rapids ( since moved by Don to the genus Physochlaina ) belonged, Gmelin went on to quiz his local guides and learned the following concerning its intentional consumption :

If one steeps the leaves or even the finely-chopped roots of this plant in brewed beer - or, better yet, in beer that is still undergoing fermentation - then it takes but a single glass of such beer to make a man exceedingly foolish : it is surely a strange draught that he quaffs, for he is robbed of all his senses, or at least finds his senses grossly disordered, mistaking tiny things for huge ones : a straw for the thickest of beams, a drop of water for a mighty ocean and a mouse for an elephant. Wherever he goes he encounters [ what he imagines to be ] insurmountable obstacles. He pictures continually to himself the cruellest and most dreadful imaginings of an inevitable death awaiting him, and, as it seems, all this fills him with despair, because his senses are withering away; thus, should one such drunkard go to step over a beam, he will take a great stride out of all proportion to the actual size of it, while another will see deep water in front of him [ where there is only shallow ] such that he dare not venture into it.

In conclusion, Gmelin then adds, concerning the plant itself :

The local inhabitants often use these roots when they want to play a prank upon each other. The Russian merchants often bring these roots back with them when they return to Russia, because they maintain them to be a sovereign remedy for bleeding haemorrhoids and also against the haematuria - a claim which I have been unable to verify.

^[30]

Gmelin's Reise durch Sibirien - with its evocative account of his findings concerning the plant now known to science as Physochlaina physaloides - received a translation into French which was published as part of Volume 18 of Abbé Prévost's monumental Histoire générale des voyages - a compendium of eighteenth century exploration by land and sea, continued beyond the original fifteen volumes, by other authors following the death of Prévost in 1763. The Histoire translation is by no means always a word-for-word rendering of Gmelin's original text, and, in the passage concerning Physochlaina, a sentence entirely absent from the Gmelin account has been added, which nonetheless has been retained in subsequent retellings of the passage in question :

Il parle continuellement sans savoir ce qu'il dit. [ Translation : 'He speaks continually, without knowing what he is saying' - said of the man intoxicated by a single glass of potent Physochlaina beer ].

^[31]

The first work devoted exclusively to recreational drugs to draw on Prévost's translation of Gmelin's account of Evenki Physochlaina use was A History of Tobacco with notes on the use of all Excitants currently known by Italian botanist Professor Orazio Comes, written in French and published in Naples in 1900.^[32]

Comes's summary of the Prévost translation was included by German Botanist Carl Hartwich in his classic and influential work of 1911 Die Menschlichen Genussmittel ( = 'The Pleasure-drugs of Mankind' )^[33], which, in turn, was quoted by 21st century expert on hallucinogens Dr. Christian Rätsch in his Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants of 2005. Hartwich speaks only of 'Hyoscyamus' with no indication of the species involved and, while Rätsch uses the correct species name physaloides he still includes the plant in his discussion of the various Hyoscyamus species - seemingly unaware that the plant was actually made the type species of the new genus Physochlaina by George Don as far back as the year 1838.

Chemistry

Physochlaina species have yielded a variety of tropane alkaloids, including not only the hyoscyamine and scopolamine present also in better-known Solanaceous genera such as Atropa, Hyoscyamus and Scopolia, but also the new (eponymous) base physochlaine, first isolated from the aerial parts of the Central Asian species Physochlaina alaica Korotkova ex Kovalevsk.^[34] Other tropanes present include apoatropine, aposcopolamine and 6-hydroxyatropine.^[35]

Westernmost species : P. orientalis

Habitat in cryptis circa acidulam Narzana et in Iberia. Floret primo vere.- Marschall von Bieberstein. Flora Taurico-caucasica 1808

Confusingly, the species of Physochlaina most commonly encountered in cultivation not only bears what appears to be a counter-intuitive specific name, but is also no longer an accepted species : the plant grown as an ornamental under the name Physochlaina orientalis (M.Bieb.) G.Don, far from being ( as its specific name appears to imply ) the Physochlaina species with the easternmost distribution is, in fact, that with the westernmost, as it is native to eastern Turkey, southern Russia the Caucasus and north-western Iran.^[36][37]

This apparent misnomer is an artifact of the plant's having initially been placed in the henbane genus Hyoscyamus as H. orientalis before the creation of the genus Physochlaina and the discovery and naming of its (Physochlaina 's) species of predominantly Chinese provenance.

The plant cultivated under the name Physochlaina orientalis (referable possibly to P. physaloides - see below) is a rhizomatous, clump-forming, perennial, up to 45 cm in height, bearing attractive, funnel-shaped flowers of a pale purplish-blue, followed, in fruit, by pubescent calyces much longer than the capsules enclosed.

In cultivation in the United Kingdom it can flower between March and May, flowering usually in the month of April, when it can make a fitting companion for Spring-flowering bulbs, particularly those sharing its preference for well-drained soil - indeed its Summer dormancy (an adaptation to drought, characteristic of Mediterranean vegetation (- see also Dry season)) resembles that of many genera of bulbous plants e.g. Tulipa.^[38]

Despite its merits as a garden flower, P. orientalis is still seldom to be seen in British gardens, although it has been grown in Britain since at least 1818 - as noted by Robert Sweet :

This pretty Spring-flowering plant was raised from seed, received from Moscow, by Messrs. Whitley, Brames and Milne, at Fulham in the year 1818.

^[39]

[ Note: the Fulham nursery of the above-mentioned Whitley, Brames and Milne was founded originally by Matthew Burchell ( c. 1752-1828 ),^[40] father of the celebrated naturalist William Burchell. It was owned subsequently - in various partnerships - by nurseryman Reginald Whitley ( c.1754-1835 ).^[41]]

In the wild, near the historic, Turkish, silver-mining town of Gümüşhane (on the westernmost edge of its range) P. orientalis is frequently to be found growing near cave mouths and in rock crevices^[42]- exactly the type of microclimate referenced by Marschall von Bieberstein in his original description of 1808, where he speaks of ' grottos near the acidic mineral springs of Narzana (= Narzan Baths, Kislovodsk, North Caucasus) '. ( Compare also a similar penchant for growing in rock crevices on the part of the Xinjiang species Physochlaina capitata - see above ).

The plant's country of origin is given in von Bieberstein's original description of ' Hyoscyamus orientalis ' (now Physochlaina orientalis) as Caucasian Iberia - a former kingdom, the heartland of which is the modern Georgian province of Kartli. The Caucasian Kingdom of Iberia also encompassed parts of Armenia, Azerbaijan, southern Russia and eastern Turkey.

Flora Iranica is in agreement on this range of occurrence for P. orientalis, adding also to the list of territories not only north-western Iran but also 'Syr Darja' - the latter being referable to lands traversed by the river Syr Darya and, more especially the historic Syr-Darya Oblast and hence modern Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan lies outside the area encompassed by Flora Iranica, but parts of neighbouring Turkmenistan do not. Either way, Flora Iranica is unequivocal in describing the range of Physochlaina orientalis as extending eastward into Central Asia. In this context, it may be noted that Phillips and Rix include in their work on garden perennials a photograph of a second, unaccepted Physochlaina species of unequivocally Central Asian provenance, namely P. alaica Korotk. ex Kovalevsk, recorded as growing in the Pamir-Alay, a Central Asian mountain range taking in parts not only of Uzbekistan, but also of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Physochlaina alaica differs from P. orientalis in having flowers of a beige or yellowish-buff colour and corolla 'throats' veined within in a contrasting dark brown. As is to be expected of a plant native to the Pamirs, this species is extremely hardy, if grown in dry (i.e. well-drained) conditions.

Physochlaina physaloides and P. orientalis

George Don notes of Physochlaina orientalis in his ' A General History... ' entry on his new genus :

This is very like P. physaloides; but differs in the higher stature, and more robust habit; in the herb being pale green, and more downy; the calyx being longer; and in the tube of the corolla widening gradually to the top; in the genitals being usually exserted; and in the calyx being less inflated, and hardly twice as long as the capsule.

Height, robustness and also, to an extent, stem and foliage colour being omitted from the discussion as functions of genetic strain, habitat and nutrition, one is left with relative pubescence, flower shape, exsertion of style and stamens and length and degree of inflation of the fruiting calyx as means of differentiating Don's original two species.

If Physochlaina orientalis were to be demoted to a subspecies of P. physaloides, one would be left with a single, rather variable species, found over an immense range stretching thousands of kilometers from Eastern Turkey through Iran, Central Asia, China and Mongolia all the way to southeastern Siberia.

Given the Central Asiatic provenance of the not-universally-accepted species Physochlaina alaica and P. semenowii and the assertion in Flora Iranica that P. orientalis may be found in Central Asia, it may be that more than one Physochlaina species will be subsumed in the concept of a variable and very wide-ranging P. physaloides.

Such variability and wide distribution bear comparison with those of a much better-known Solanaceous plant : Atropa belladonna, which a consultation of the literature will reveal to have acquired a relatively large number of specific and subspecific names now largely reduced to synonymy with A. belladonna as local varieties of a single very variable species found from the U.K. in the West to northern Iran in the East.^[43]

Gallery

Shoot development and anthesis in Physochlaina orientalis

References

1. ^Armando T. Hunziker: The Genera of Solanaceae. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag K.G., Ruggell, Liechtenstein 2001. {{ISBN|3-904144-77-4}}.
2. ^An-ming, Lu and Zhi-yu, Zhang Studies of the Subtribe Hyoscyaminae in China, paper no. 5 in Solanaceae : Biology and Systematics, Ed. William G. D'Arcy, pub. Columbia University Press 1986.
3. ^Polunin, Oleg and Stainton, Adam, Flowers of the Himalaya, pub. Oxford University Press 1984, pps. 288-9.
4. ^Rätsch, Christian, The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications pub. Park Street Press 2005
5. ^The Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening ed. Chittenden, Fred J., 2nd edition, by Synge, Patrick M. Volume III : Je-Pt. Pub. Oxford at the Clarendon Press 1965. Reprinted 1984. {{ISBN|0-19-869106-8}}
6. ^YouTube.com Physochlaina videos produced by Вокруг Света (Vokrug Sveta) TV and Дмитрий Сутуԓа (Dmitriy Sutula).
7. ^Glosbe online Swedish dictionary.
8. ^Google translate: Finnish to English.
9. ^Facebook page for Tartu Üllikooli botaanikaaed (= University of Tartu Botanical Gardens )
10. ^Техов Ф.Д. (Tekhov, F.D.)Названия растений в осетинском языке. Издательство «Ирыстон», Цхинвали (Tskhinvali).
11. ^Дзабиты 3арбег. (Dzabite, Zarber) Ирон адæмон хостæ. — Дзæуджыхъæу: Ир, 1995 — 201 ф.
12. ^Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012). CRC World dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology. IV, M-Q. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group. p.
13. ^https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_Medicine/From_Pachydictyon_Coriaceum_To_Python_Molurus_Bivittatus Retrieved 20/6/17 at 12.22 pm
14. ^Online Flora of China, page Physochlaina with key to accepted species http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=125320 Retrieved April 20th 2017
15. ^Online Flora of Pakistan http://www.tropicos.org/Name/29604710?projectid=32 Retrieved 14.15 pm 3/7/17
16. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Solanaceae/Physochlaina/|title=The Plant List|work=The Plant List|accessdate=18 February 2017}}
17. ^Euro+Med PlantBase Retrieved April 27, 2017 http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed/PTaxonDetailOccurrence.asp?NameId=100802&PTRefFk=7100000
18. ^powo.science.kew.org
19. ^M.N. Semenova: Physochlaina. In: B.K. Schischkin und E.G. Bobrov (Hrsg.): Flora of the USSR: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae, Translated from Russian, Band 22, Smithsonian Institution Libraries, Washington D.C., USA, 1997. S. 90–94. Original pub. : Akademiya Nauk SSSR Publishers, Moscow, Leningrad, 1955. Viewable online at https://archive.org/stream/floraofussr22bota/floraofussr22bota_djvu.txt Retrieved April 26, 2017
20. ^Peigen, Xiao and Liyi, He Ethnopharmacologic investigation on tropane-containing drugs in Chinese Solanaceous plants in Journal of Ethnopharmacology Volume 8 No. 1 July (1983) pub. Elsevier.
21. ^Goossaert, Vincent. "Huashan." in Fabrizio Pregadio, ed., The Encyclopedia of Taoism (London: Routledge, 2008), 481–482.
22. ^Harner, Michael J., Hallucinogens and Shamanism, pub. Oxford University Press 1973, reprinted U.S.A.1978 Chapter 8 : pps. 125-150.
23. ^Schultes, Richard Evans and Hofmann, Albert The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens - revised and enlarged second edition, pub. Charles C. Thomas 1980 {{ISBN|0 398 03863 5}} pps. 288 and 337.
24. ^Leon, Christine and Yu-Lin, Lin, Chinese Medicinal Plants, Herbal Drugs and Substitutes : an identification guide, Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2017 {{ISBN|978 1 84246 630 8}} pps. 240 and 312.
25. ^Chung yao chih [New Chinese Materia Medica] 1959 vol. 1 : Roots, quoted in Perry, Lily M. assisted by Metzger, Judith Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia, pub. The MIT Press 1980 {{ISBN|0 262 16076 5}}.
26. ^Schwartz, Pamela Yew (September 2002). "Why is neurasthenia important in Asian cultures?". West. J. Med. 176 (4): 257–8. {{PMC|1071745}} .
27. ^Kleinman, Arthur (1986), Social Origins of Distress and Disease: Depression, Neurasthenia, and Pain in Modern China, Yale University Press, p. 115.
28. ^Sharma, B.M. and Singh, Pratap, (1975) Pharmacognostic study of Physochlaina praealta Miers. Quarterly Journal of Crude Drug Research, 13, pps. 77-84.
29. ^Khaidav, Z. and Menschikova, T. (eds) (1978) Lekarstvenie rastenia v Mongolskoi medizine Academia Nauk MNR, Ulan Bator.
30. ^Johann Georg Gmelin, Reise durch Sibirien von dem Jahre 1738 bis zum ende 1740, Bd. 3 & 4 , Vandenhoeck, Göttingen, 1752.
31. ^Continuation de l'Histoire Générale des Voyages ou Collection Nouvelle 1o des Relations de Voyages par Mer : decouvertes, observations, descriptions, omises dans celle de Seu M. l'Abbé Prévost, ou publiées depuis cet Ouvrage. 2o des Voyages par Terre, faits dans Toutes les Parties du Monde. Vol. 18 - being the first volume of said continuation - pub. Rozet, Paris 1748. Page 338, under heading in margin 'Plante qui enivre' [= 'Intoxicating plant' ].
32. ^Orazio Comes Histoire, Géographie, Statistique du Tabac : son introduction et son expansion dans tous les pays depuis son origine jusqu'à la fin du XIX.me siècle avec des notes sur l'usage de tous les excitants connus : Hachich, Opium, Bétel, Café, Thé etc. pub. Naples, Typographie Coopérative Largo dei Bianchi allo Spirito Santo 1 a 4 1900. Page 282 note 12.
33. ^Carl Hartwich Die Menschlichen Genussmittel, ihre herkunft, verbreitung, geschichte, anwendung, bestandteile und wirkung ( Translation : The Pleasure-drugs of Mankind - their origins, spread, history, application, ingredients and effects ), pub. Leipzig 1911 Chr. Herm. Tauchnitz. Page 522 under heading 3 : 'Daß Hyoscyamus'.
34. ^Mirzamatov R., Luftullin K., Mallikov V. and Yunusov, S. (1974a) Physochlaine - novi alkaloid iz Physochlaina alaica. Khim Prir Soedin 3 : pps. 415-6.
35. ^Gorinova, N.I., Atanassov, A.I. and Velcheva, M.P. In Vitro Culture and the Production of Physochlaine and Other Tropane Alkaloids in Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry, Vol. 43 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants XI (ed. by Y.P.S. Bajaj) pub. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1999.
36. ^Phillips, Roger and Rix, Martyn Perennials, 2 vols. pub. Pan 1991, vol 1 Early Perennials, page 77.
37. ^Rechinger, Karl Heinz and Schönbeck-Temesy, Eva 1972. Solanaceae. Nº 100,102 pp. - a fascicle of Flora Iranica : Flora des iranischen Hochlandes und der umrahmenden Gebirge; Persien, Afghanistan, Teile von West-Pakistan, Nord-Iraq, Azerbaidjan, Turkmenistan (Translation : 'Flora Iranica : Flora of the Iranian Highlands and the mountain ranges adjoining; taking in Iran and Afghanistan, and including also parts of Pakistan, Northern Iraq, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan') pps. 48-49 as 'Physochlaena (sic) orientalis'.
38. ^Rix, Martyn Growing Bulbs, pub. Croom Helm 1983 {{ISBN|0-7099-2248-5}}
39. ^Sweet, Robert (1823–1829). The British Flower Garden : coloured figures & descriptions of the most ornamental & curious hardy herbaceous plants. Drawings by Edwin Dalton Smith. London: W. Simpkin and R. Marshall. Series 1 : volume 1 1823-1825 : no.12 : HYOSCYAMUS orientalis. Oriental Henbane.https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011570305 Retrieved 14.34 on 23/10/18.
40. ^http://www.john-attfield.com/paf_tree/attfield_current/fam3094.html Retrieved 17.50 on 23/10/18
41. ^https://www.forestbooks.co.uk/books/detail/9647.htm Retrieved 17.51 on 23/10/18
42. ^Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands ed. Davis, P.H., pub. University of Edinburgh Press 1978, reprinted 1997, 2001 and 2008. {{ISBN|0 85224 336 7}} pps. 452-3
43. ^http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=Atropa

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9 : Solanoideae|Flora of the Caucasus|Flora of temperate Asia|Flora of Central Asia|Flora of China|Poisonous plants|Solanaceae genera|Medicinal plants of Asia|Garden plants of Asia

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