| 词条 | Sugar industry | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 释义 |
The sugar industry subsumes the production, processing and marketing of sugars (mostly saccharose and fructose). Globally, most sugar is extracted from sugar cane (~80 % predominantly in the tropics) and sugar beet (~ 20%, mostly in temperate climate like in the U.S. or Europe). Sugar is used for soft drinks, sweetened beverages, convenience foods, fast food, candy, confectionery, baked products, and other sweetened foods. Sugar subsidies have driven market costs for sugar well below the cost of production. As of 2018, 3/4 of world sugar production was not traded on the open market. The global market for sugar and sweeteners was some $77.5 billion in 2012, with sugar comprising an almost 85% share, growing at a compound annual growth rate of 4.6%.[1] Globally in 2018, around 185 million tons of sugar was produced, led by India with 35.9 million tons, followed by Brazil and Thailand.[2] There are more than 123 sugar-producing countries, but only 30% of the produce is traded on the international market. MarketSugar subsidies have driven market costs for sugar well below the cost of production. As of 2018, 3/4 of world sugar production is never traded on the open market. Brazil controls half the global market, paying the most ($2.5 billion per year) in subsidies to its sugar industry.[3] The US sugar system is complex, using price supports, domestic marketing allotments, and tariff-rate quotas.[4] It directly supports sugar processors[5][6] rather than farmers growing sugar crops.[3] The US government also uses tariffs to keep the US domestic price of sugar 64 to 92% higher than the world market price, costing American consumers $3.7 billion per year.[6] A 2018 policy proposal to eliminate sugar tariffs, called "Zero-for-Zero", is currently (March 2018) before the US Congress.[3][7] Previous reform attempts have failed.[8] The European Union (EU) is a leading sugar exporter. The Common Agricultural Policy of the EU used to set maximum quotas for production and exports, and a subsidized sugar sales with an EU-guaranteed minimum price.[9][10] Large import tariffs were also used to protect the market.[9] In 2004, the EU was spending €3.30 in subsidies to export €1 worth of sugar, and some sugar processors, like British Sugar, had a 25% profit margin.[15] A 2004 Oxfam report called EU sugar subsidies "dumping" and said they harm the world's poor.[11] A WTO ruling against the EU quota and subsidy system in 2005-2006[12] forced the EU to cut its minimum price and quotas, and stop doing intervention buying.[9] The EU abolished some quotas in 2015,[13][14], but minimum prices remain.[13][15][16] Tariffs also persist for most countries.[17] In 2009, the EU granted Least Developed Countries (LDCs) zero-tariff access to the EU market[9] as part of the Everything but Arms initiative.[10] As of 2018, India, Thailand, and Mexico also subsidize sugar.[3] Glucose syrups produced from wheat and corn (maize) compete with the traditional dry sugar market.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} Global playersThe top 10 sugar-producing companies based on production in 2010:[18]
The global sugar industry has a low market share concentration. The top four sugar producers account for less than 20.0% of the market.[19] {{see also|:Category:Sugar companies}}Products
Lobbying and marketing{{Main|Sugar marketing}}The sugar industry engages in sugar marketing and lobbying, minimizing the health effects of sugar and influencing medical research and public health recommendations.[20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27] Organizations
References1. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/news/2013/04/global-sugar-sweeteners-market-to-hit-97-billion.aspx|title=Global Sugar, Sweeteners Market to Hit $97 Billion by 2017|date=April 18, 2013|publisher=Natural Products Insider}} 2. ^{{cite web |title=Sugar: World Markets and Trade |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/sugar.pdf |publisher=Foreign Agricultural Service, US Department of Agriculture |accessdate=24 March 2019 |date=20 November 2018}} 3. ^1 2 3 https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/mar/16/steel-sugar-subsidies-hinder-free-trade/ 4. ^https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/sugar-sweeteners/policy.aspx 5. ^https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/sugar-sweeteners/policy.aspx 6. ^1 http://www.startribune.com/sugar-subsidies-are-sweet-but-not-for-the-taxpayer/226532001/ 7. ^https://yoho.house.gov/media-center/in-the-news/yoho-zero-for-zero-sugar-policy-is-a-trade-win-win-for-everyone 8. ^https://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/why-congress-should-repeal-sugar-subsidy 9. ^1 2 3 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4118448.stm 10. ^1 https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/sugar/doc/sugar-faq_en.pdf 11. ^1 https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bp61_sugar_dumping_0.pdf 12. ^https://www.ictsd.org/bridges-news/biores/news/brazil-claims-victory-after-wto-ruling-on-eu-sugar-subsidies 13. ^1 https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sugar_en 14. ^https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/eu-sugar-policy-sweet-transition-after-2015?search 15. ^https://www.tralac.org/discussions/article/5684-the-end-of-the-eu-sugar-quota-and-the-implication-for-african-producers.html 16. ^https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/mar/27/brexit-sugar-beet-cane-tate-lyle-british-sugar 17. ^https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/mar/27/brexit-sugar-beet-cane-tate-lyle-british-sugar 18. ^{{cite web|title=Suedzucker Leads the Top 10 Sugar-Producing Companies|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-11-04/suedzucker-leads-the-top-10-sugar-producing-companies-table-|author=Chanyaporn Chanjaroen|date=November 4, 2011|publisher=Bloomberg.com}} 19. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ibisworld.com/industry/global/global-sugar-manufacturing.html|title=Global Sugar Manufacturing: Market Research Report|publisher=IBISWorld|year=2016}} 20. ^{{Cite web| last = O’Connor| first = Anahad| title = Coca-Cola Funds Scientists Who Shift Blame for Obesity Away From Bad Diets| work = Well| accessdate = 2018-03-24| date = 9 August 2015| url = https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/08/09/coca-cola-funds-scientists-who-shift-blame-for-obesity-away-from-bad-diets/}} 21. ^{{Cite news| issn = 0362-4331| last = Lipton| first = Eric| title = Rival Industries Sweet-Talk the Public| work = The New York Times| accessdate = 2018-03-23| date = 11 February 2014| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/12/business/rival-industries-sweet-talk-the-public.html}} 22. ^{{Cite news| last = Sifferlin| first = Alexandra| title = Soda Companies Fund 96 Health Groups In the U.S.| work = Time| accessdate = 2018-03-24| date = 10 October 2016| url = http://time.com/4522940/soda-pepsi-coke-health-obesity/}} 23. ^{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1001/jama.2017.3456| pmid = 28464165| issn = 0098-7484| volume = 317| issue = 17| pages = 1755–1756| last = Mozaffarian| first = Dariush| title = Conflict of Interest and the Role of the Food Industry in Nutrition Research| journal = JAMA| date = 2 May 2017}} 24. ^{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1136/bmj.h780| pmid = 25672619| issn = 1756-1833| volume = 350| issue = feb10 16| pages = –780–h780| last1 = Anderson| first1 = P.| last2 = Miller| first2 = D.| title = Commentary: Sweet policies| journal = BMJ| date = 11 February 2015}} 25. ^{{Cite journal| doi = 10.7326/L16-0534| pmid = 27802504| issn = 0003-4819| volume = 165| issue = 12| pages = 895–897| last1 = Schillinger| first1 = Dean| last2 = Tran| first2 = Jessica| last3 = Mangurian| first3 = Christina| last4 = Kearns| first4 = Cristin| title = Do Sugar-Sweetened Beverages Cause Obesity and Diabetes? Industry and the Manufacture of Scientific Controversy| journal = Annals of Internal Medicine| accessdate = 2018-03-21| date = 20 December 2016| url = http://diabetesed.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Annals-int-medicine-sugar-study-skew.pdf}}(original url, paywalled: [https://www.acponline.org/authors/conflictFormServlet/L16-0534/ICMJE/L16-0534-Conflicts.pdf Author's conflict of interest disclosure forms]) 26. ^{{Cite journal| volume = 10| issue = 12| pages = –1001578| last1 = Bes-Rastrollo| first1 = Maira| last2 = Schulze| first2 = Matthias B.| last3 = Ruiz-Canela| first3 = Miguel| last4 = Martinez-Gonzalez| first4 = Miguel A.| title = Financial conflicts of interest and reporting bias regarding the association between sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review of systematic reviews| journal = PLoS Medicine| doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001578| pmid = 24391479| pmc = 3876974|date = 2013}} 27. ^{{Cite news| issn = 0362-4331| last = O’Connor| first = Anahad| title = Studies Linked to Soda Industry Mask Health Risks| work = The New York Times| accessdate = 2018-03-23| date = 31 October 2016| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/01/well/eat/studies-linked-to-soda-industry-mask-health-risks.html}} See also
Further reading
3 : Sugar industry|Sugar production|Agricultural economics |
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