“Zambia and Regional Diplomacy”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Following the independence of Zambia on October 24, 1964, the country has lent military aid and support to numerous movements and governments on the international stage. Most notably, Zambia has a history of providing military aid to combatants and political parties fighting for independence throughout Africa.^[1] The aid that Zambia has provided for African nationalistic movements during the colonial era revolves around both military and diplomatic arrangement for liberation and peace.^[2] The Zambian Defense Force (ZDF), which consists of the Zambian Army, Zambian Air force and Zambian National Service, has played a key part in a multitude of key regional and international conflicts throughout the 1970s and 1980s.^[3] Most notably, the Zambian military has provided counter insurgent efforts during major African confrontations such as the Rhodesian Bush War despite not being the main belligerent.^[4]

Zambia has a history of supporting regional liberation movements and Former President Kenneth Kaunda had previously decreed that "Zambia will not be independent and free until the rest of Africa is Free".^[5] Critics{{weasel inline|date=November 2018}} have pointed to Zambia's historical stance of non-engagement and détente as a self-preservation act for a historically authoritarian government.^[6] As a large central nation, the governability of Zambia relies on the stability and diplomacy of nearby states that surround Zambia.^[2] Regional stability has allowed Former President Kenneth Kaunda to maintain power in the relatively poor nation for several decades.^[7]

Liberation and political support

Zambia received its own liberation from colonialism relatively early from Britain. The newly formed Zambian government under President Kenneth Kaunda of the UNIP party was active in the liberation and disputes of its neighbors for decades following its independence.^[8] The Zambian government offered shelter for revolutionaries, mediated treaty signings and offered aid and weapons. The continuation of colonial rule in Southern Africa was seen as a slight to Zambia and inherent feelings of African unity drove the new nation to aid its neighbors resist colonial rule.^[9]

Most notably, Zambia was a haven for revolutionaries from the Namibia liberation party,^[10] South West African People's Organization (SWAPO) and the African National Congress (ANC) in South Africa. Zambia provided a rear base for revolutionaries as well as administrative and political aid.

SWAPO

The South West African People's Organization (SWAPO) is a political party that was formerly an independence movement based in Namibia.^[11] Due to pressures from within Namibia, SWAPO moved its headquarters and much of its forces into neighboring Zambia in the 1970s. Zambia became a safe haven for the group and SWAPO set up guerrilla training camps and sent exiled members into Zambia.^[10] The Shipanga Crisis, so named for senior SWAPO leader Andreas Shipanga, saw the Zambian government help round up thousands of dissidents and critics of the movement.^[12] SWAPO leaders in Namibia saw growing dissent in the SWAPO installations and guerrilla camps in Zambia, and appealed to then President Kaunda for help. After rounding up thousands of perceived rebels, including Shipanga with the aid of Zambia, SWAPO leadership in Namibia became markedly more authoritarian.^[13]

African National Congress

The African National Congress was an anti-apartheid political party based in South Africa, with close ideological ties to the Zambian African National Congress of President Kenneth Kaunda.^[14] When the political party was banned in South Africa by the colonial government, many of its leaders went underground or fled to Zambia.^[15] Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, became the new headquarters for many ANC leaders in exile from their native South Africa. Zambia thus developed a legacy of being the center of activity for South African liberation and allowed exiled leaders to convene and organize. Former South African President Nelson Mandela had expressed the important role that Zambia played in the liberation of their country during the years of exile.^[16] Zambia's policy of liberation through diplomacy and discreet support for African nationalist movements within the region is most poignant in the South African case.^[17]

Zimbabwe

Zambia has also provided key support to the liberation struggles of nearby Zimbabwe from their colonial rulers in the 1960s to 1970's.^[18] Specifically, Zambia provided armed and diplomatic support to Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) during their struggles against the British backed Rhodesian government in the Rhodesian Bush War.^[19] Zambia provided limited arms and training towards Zimbabwe's African nationalist movements, but largely applied diplomatic approaches to induce liberation in Zimbabwe.^[20] This included multiple visits and discussion between the Rhodesian government and Zambia leaders to negotiate a resolution to the civil strife within the country. Eventually, in 1979, the Rhodesian government submitted to international pressures and conducted elections that lead to the eventual renaming of the country as Zimbabwe.^[21]

UNITA

The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) was a party in Angola that served as one of the main belligerents in the Angolan Civil War of 1975 against People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA).^[22] Zambia, under Kenneth Kaunda trained and funded UNITA against the MPLA during the civil war. Lusaka remained one of the most ardent supporters of the UNITA African nationalists and UNITA troops trained in Zambia.^[23] Since then, Zambia has rescinded its historical support of UNITA and has apologized to the current Angolan government over the historical support of UNITA.^[24]

Roles in regional disputes

Angolan Civil War

Zambia was key in facilitating talks between People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) of the Angolan Civil War.^[25] The Angolan Civil War waged on from 1975 onward and involved massive foreign intervention in the face of the Cold War.^[26] Initiated by Zambia, the Lusaka Protocol was a treaty that attempted to end the Civil War by disarmament and national reconciliation. The treaty was signed in Lusaka on November 20, 1994 and garnered international support, as well as support from Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe and South African President Nelson Mandela.^[27] Ultimately the fighting resumed, and by 1998, the peace process ceased.^[28]

The Second Congo War

The Second Congo war was a major African continental war that began in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 1998, and involved nine different African countries.^[29] Zambia was not a belligerent in this military engagement, but sought to facilitate peace and an end to the fighting. Representatives from various international organizations such as the United Nations, met on June 21–27, 1999 in Lusaka in order to draft a resolution to the conflict.^[30] The ceasefire agreement set to end the fighting, deploy peacekeeping forces and release prisoners of war on both sides of the fighting. Heads of state from Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Namibia, Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe convened in Lusaka, Zambia on July 10, 1999 to sign the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement.^[31] Ultimately hostilities continued despite the passage of the Peace Agreement, and the official fighting did not resolve itself until 2003.^[32]

References

1. ^Tordoff, William (1974). Politics in Zambia. North Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 358–362.
2. ^¹Shaw, Timothy M. "The foreign policy system of Zambia." African Studies Review 19.1 (1976): 31-66.
3. ^Abrahams, Diane; Cawthra, Gavin; Williams, Rocklyn (2003). Ourselves To Know: Civil-military Relations and Defence Transformation in Southern Africa. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies South Africa. pp. 3–6.
4. ^Moorcraft & McLaughlin 2008, pp. 140–143
5. ^Musonda, Emelda. “Price Zambia Paid for Africa's Liberation." Zambia Daily Mail, www.daily-mail.co.zm/price-zambia-paid-for-africas-liberation/.
6. ^Shaw, Timothy M. "Dilemmas of Dependence and (Under) Development: conflicts and choices in Zambia's present and prospective foreign policy." Africa Today 26.4 (1979): 43-65
7. ^Shaw, T. M., & MUGOMBA, A. T. (1977). The political economy of regional detente: Zambia and southern africa. Journal of African Studies, 4(4), 392
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10. ^¹{{Cite journal|last=A.|first=Williams, Christian|date=2009|title=Exile History: An Ethnography of the SWAPO Camps and the Namibian Nation.|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/64754|language=en-US}}
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16. ^"Nelson Mandela's Work and Freedom Would Have Been Difficult If Not for Zambia." New African Magazine, 31 July 2018
17. ^Landsberg, Chris. The quiet diplomacy of liberation: International politics and South Africa's transition. Jacana Media, 2004
18. ^Scarritt, James R., and Solomon M. Nkiwane. "Friends, neighbors, and former enemies: the evolution of Zambia-Zimbabwe relations in a changing regional context." Africa Today 43.1 (1996): 7-31.
19. ^Chongo, Clarence. Decolonising Southern Africa: a history of Zambia's role in Zimbabwe's liberation struggle 1964-1979. Diss. University of Pretoria, 2
20. ^Scarritt, James R., Solomon M. Nkiwane, and Henrik Sommer. "A process tracing plausibility probe of uneven democratization's effects on cooperative dyads: The case of Zambia and Zimbabwe 1980–1993." International Interactions26.1 (2000): 55-90.
21. ^"Insurgency in Rhodesia, 1957–1973: An Account and Assessment". International Institute for Strategic Studies. 1973.
22. ^"Absolute Hell Over There". TIME Magazine. 17 January 1977. Retrieved 21 November 2018.
23. ^Wade. "The Angolan Civil War (1975-2002): A Brief History." South African History Online, 13 July 2017
24. ^Simuchoba, Arthur. "We Are so Sorry, Sata Tells Angola." TimesLIVE, TimesLIVE, www.timeslive.co.za/news/africa/2011-10-31-we-are-so-sorry-sata-tells-angola/.
25. ^Vines, Alex. Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process, 1999. Human Rights Watch.
26. ^"AfricanCrisis". AfricanCrisis. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
27. ^"IV. THE LUSAKA PEACE PROCESS." Human Rights Watch, www.hrw.org/reports/1999/angola/Angl998-04.htm.
28. ^Vines, Alex (1999). Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process. Human Rights Watch.
29. ^Bowers, Chris (24 July 2006). "World War Three". My Direct Democracy. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018.
30. ^"DR Congo: Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 2018-11-20.
31. ^Ngolet F. (2011) The Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement. In: Crisis in the Congo. Palgrave Macmillan, New York
32. ^Soderlund, Walter C.; DonaldBriggs, E.; PierreNajem, Tom; Roberts, Blake C. (2013-01-01). Africa's Deadliest Conflict: Media Coverage of the Humanitarian Disaster in the Congo and the United Nations Response, 1997–2008. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. {{ISBN|9781554588787}}.