“Anti-Hindu sentiment”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Anti-Hindu sentiment, also known as Hinduphobia or Anti-Hinduism, is a negative perception, sentiment or actions against the practice and practitioners of Hinduism.

Anti-Hindu sentiments

Individuals in the Indian diaspora have begun to protest that Western scholars "distort their religion and perpetuate negative stereotypes",^[1] which began with Macaulayism in India. Historically, such stereotypes were promulgated during the British Raj by several Indophobes in South Asia as a means to aggrandize sectarian divisions in Indian society, part of the divide and rule strategy employed by the British.^[1]

The Indian Caste System, a social stratification system in South Asia which has been criticized for its discriminatory problems, is often seen as a uniquely 'Hindu' issue rather than a cultural one. This is a common stereotype, as adherents of other religions such as Islam, Sikhism and Christianity have kept the practice of caste segregation in India (for details, see Caste system among South Asian Muslims).^[2]^[3]{{sfnp|Chaudhary|2013|p=149|ps=}}^[4]

Christian missionaries denigrate selected features of Hindu practice—most notably image worship, sati, and child marriage (the first two were also criticized by Muslims).^[5]

According to the religious dialogue activist P. N. Benjamin, some christian evangelists denigrate Hindu gods and abuse Hindu rituals as barbaric, and such attitudes have caused tensions between religious communities.^[6]^[7]

According to the Swarajya magazine, false allegations have been made that Hindus and Hindu organisations are attacking Christians in a systemic manner in India when the perpetrators were not even Hindus.^[8]

A Muslim preacher apologised for insulting Hinduism in 2014, after an uproar.^[14]

Hindus are considered to be Kafirs by Muslims and Heathen by Christians.^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]

Historical instances of anti-Hindu views

Under Muslim rulers in India

Under the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the Muslim cleric Ziauddin Barrani wrote several works, such as the Fatwa-i-Jahandari, which gave him a reputation as a "fanatical protagonist of Islam"^[20] and wrote that there should be "an all-out struggle against Hinduism", advocating a militant and dogmatic religiosity.^[21] He developed a system of religious elitism to that effect.^[21]

Historian Hayavadana C. Rao wrote about Tippu in his encyclopaedic work on the History of Mysore. He asserted that Tippu's "religious fanaticism and the excesses committed in the name of religion, both in Mysore and in the provinces, stand condemned for all time. His bigotry, indeed, was so great that it precluded all ideas of toleration". He further asserts that the acts of Tippu that were constructive towards Hindus were largely political and ostentatious rather than an indication of genuine tolerance.^[22]

He also corresponded with the Sringeri Shankaracharya – expressing grief and indignation at a raid by Maratha bandit horsemen (called Pindari), which killed many and plundered the monastery of its valuable possessions,^[23] patronised the Melkote temple (which has gold and silver vessels with inscriptions indicating that they were presented under the Sultan), for which a Kannada decree was issued that the Shrivaishnava (Hindu sectary) invocatory verses there should be recited in the traditional form. Tipu Sultan also presented four silver cups to the Lakshmikanta Temple at Kalale^[24] and probably presented the Ranganatha temple at Srirangapatana with seven silver cups and a silver camphor burner.^[25] The Sringeri Sharada Peetham has in its safe possession some 24 letters written by the Sultan who also sent a silver palanquin and a pair of silver chauris to the Sarada Temple as well.^[26]

Tipu sent a letter on 19 January 1790 to the Governor of Bekal, Budruz Zuman Khan. It says:

Although the attitudes of Muslim ruler Tippu Sultan have been criticized as being anti-Hindu by Indian historians, left-wing historians note that he had an egalitarian attitude towards Hindus and was harsh towards them only when politically expedient.^[28] Former IAS Officer, Praxy Fernandes has mentioned in his book that Tipu Sultan displayed reverence to the head of the Hindu Shringeri Mutt, by

During the British Raj

During the British rule of the Indian subcontinent, several evangelical Christian missionaries spread anti-Hindu propaganda as a means to convert Hindus to Christianity. Examples include missionaries like Abbe J.A. Dubois, who wrote "Once the devadasis' temple duties are over, they open their cells of infamy, and frequently convert the temple itself into a stew. A religion more shameful or indecent has never existed amongst a civilized people."^[31]

In Charles Grant's highly influential "Observations on the ...Asiatic subjects of Great Britain" (1796),^[32] Grant criticized the Orientalists for being too respectful to Indian culture and religion. His work tried to determine the Hindu's "true place in the moral scale", and he alleged that the Hindus are "a people exceedingly depraved".

Goa Inquisition

The Goa Inquisition was a colonial era Portuguese institution established by the Roman Catholic Holy Office between the 16th- and 19th-century to stop and punish heresy against Christianity in South Asia.^[33] The institution persecuted Hindus through the colonial era Portuguese government and Jesuit clergy in Portuguese India.^[33] It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774 to 1778, continued thereafter and finally abolished in 1820.^[34]^[35] The Inquisition punished those who had converted to Catholicism, but were suspected by Jesuit clergy of practising their previous religion in secret. Predominantly, the persecuted were accused of crypto-Hinduism.^[36]^[37]^[38]

In South Asia

Afghanistan

The extremist Taliban regime in Afghanistan, which enforced strict sharia (Islamic law), announced plans in May 2001 to require Hindus (and Sikhs) to wear identifying badges in public, part of the Taliban's campaign to segregate and repress "un-Islamic and idolatrous segments" of Afghan society.^[39]^[40] At the time, about 500 Hindus and 2,000 Sikhs remained in Afghanistan.^[41]

The anti-Hindu decree was seen as reminiscent of the Nazi Germany law requiring Jews to wear an identifying yellow badge.^[40]^[42] The order prompted international outrage, and was denounced by the Indian and U.S. governments,^[41] as well as by Abraham Foxman of the Anti-Defamation League.^[42] Following international pressure, the Taliban regime dropped the badge plans in June 2001.^[43]

Bangladesh

Political leaders frequently fall back on "Hindu bashing" in an attempt to appeal to extremist sentiment and to stir up communal passions.^[44] In one of the most notorious utterances of a mainstream Bangladeshi figure, the then Prime Minister Khaleda Zia, while leader of the opposition in 1996, declared that the country was at risk of hearing "uludhhwani" (a Bengali Hindu custom involving women's ululation) from mosques, replacing the azaan (Muslim call to prayer) (e.g., see Agence-France Press report of 18 November 1996, "Bangladesh opposition leader accused of hurting religious sentiment").{{Citation needed|reason=provided reference is not verifiable|date=November 2017}}

Even the supposedly secular Bangladesh Awami League is not immune from this kind of scare-mongering. The current prime minister, Sheikh Hasina, was alleged to have accused Bangladeshi Hindu leaders in New York of having divided loyalties with "one foot in India and one in Bangladesh". Successive events such as this have contributed to a feeling of tremendous insecurity among the Hindu minority.^[45]

The fundamentalists and right-wing parties such as the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and Jatiya Party often portray Hindus as being sympathetic to India, making accusations of dual loyalty and allegations of transferring economic resources to India, contributing to a widespread perception that Bangladeshi Hindus are disloyal to the state. Also, the right wing parties claim the Hindus to be backing the Awami League.^[46]

As widely documented in international media, Bangladesh authorities have had to increase security to enable Bangladeshi Hindus to worship freely^[47] following widespread attacks on places of worship and devotees.

On 28 February 2013, the International Crimes Tribunal sentenced Delwar Hossain Sayeedi, the Vice President of the Jamaat-e-Islami to death for the war crimes committed during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War. Following the sentence, activists of Jamaat-e-Islami and its student wing Islami Chhatra Shibir attacked the Hindus in different parts of the country. Hindu properties were looted, Hindu houses were burnt into ashes and Hindu temples were desecrated and set on fire.^[48]^[49] While the government has held the Jamaat-e-Islami responsible for the attacks on the minorities, the Jamaat-e-Islami leadership has denied any involvement. The minority leaders have protested the attacks and appealed for justice. The Supreme Court of Bangladesh has directed the law enforcement to start suo motu investigation into the attacks. US Ambassador to Bangladesh express concern about attack of Jamaat on Bengali Hindu community.^[50]^[51] The violence included the looting of Hindu properties and businesses, the burning of Hindu homes, rape of Hindu women and desecration and destruction of Hindu temples.^[52] According to community leaders, more than 50 Hindu temples and 1,500 Hindu homes were destroyed in 20 districts.^[53] On May 5, 2014, A mob of almost 3,000 attacked Hindu households and a temple in eastern Bangladesh after two youths from the community allegedly insulted the Islamic prophet, Muhammad on Facebook.^[54]^[55]^[56]

Pakistan

In Pakistan, anti-Hindu sentiments and beliefs are widely held among many sections of the population. There is a general stereotype against Hindus in Pakistan. Hindus are regarded as "miserly".^[57] Also, Hindus are often regarded as "Kaffirs" (lit. "unbelievers") and blamed for "causing all the problems in Pakistan".^[58] Islamic fundamentalist groups operating within Pakistan and neighboring Afghanistan have broadcast or disseminated anti-Hindu propaganda among the masses,^[59] referring to Hindus as "Hanood" ('Hindu' is singular and Hanood is plural form in Urdu) blaming them for "collaborating with the foreigners" against the people of the region.

At the time of Pakistan's creation the 'hostage theory' had been espoused. According to this theory the Hindu minority in Pakistan was to be given a fair deal in Pakistan in order to ensure the protection of the Muslim minority in India.^[60]^[61] However, Khawaja Nazimuddin, the 2nd Prime Minister of Pakistan stated: "I do not agree that religion is a private affair of the individual nor do I agree that in an Islamic state every citizen has identical rights, no matter what his caste, creed or faith be".^[62]

Separate electorates for Hindus and Christians were established in 1985—a policy originally proposed by Islamist leader Abul A'la Maududi. Christian and Hindu leaders complained that they felt excluded from the county's political process, but the policy had strong support from Islamists.^[63]

The Muttahida Majlis-i-Amal (MMA), a coalition of Islamist political parties in Pakistan, calls for the increased Islamization of the government and society, specifically taking an anti-Hindu stance. The MMA leads the opposition in the national assembly, held a majority in the NWFP Provincial Assembly, and was part of the ruling coalition in Balochistan. However, some members of the MMA made efforts to eliminate their rhetoric against Hindus.^[64]

The public school curriculum in Pakistan was Islamized during the 1980s.^[65] The government of Pakistan claims to undertake a major revision to eliminate such teachings and to remove Islamic teaching from secular subjects.^[64] The bias in Pakistani textbooks was also documented by Y. Rosser (2003). She wrote that

The bias in Pakistani textbooks was studied by Rubina Saigol, K. K. Aziz, I. A. Rahman, Mubarak Ali, A. H. Nayyar, Ahmed Saleem, Y. Rosser and others.

A study by Nayyar & Salim (2003) that was conducted with 30 experts of Pakistan's education system, found that the textbooks contain statements that seek to create hate against Hindus. There was also an emphasis on Jihad, Shahadat, wars and military heroes. The study reported that the textbooks also had a lot of gender-biased stereotypes. Some of the problems in Pakistani textbooks cited in the report were:

A more recent textbook published in Pakistan titled "A Short History of Pakistan" edited by Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi has been heavily criticized by academic peer-reviewers for anti-Hindu biases and prejudices that are consistent with Pakistani nationalism, where Hindus are portrayed as "villains" and Muslims as "victims" living under the "disastrous Hindu rule" and "betraying the Muslims to the British", characterizations that academic reviewers fond "disquieting" and having a "warped subjectivity".^[67]^[68]^[69]

Ameer Hamza, a leader of the banned terrorist group Lashkar-e-Toiba, wrote a highly derogatory book about Hinduism in 1999 called "Hindu Ki Haqeeqat" ("Reality of (a) Hindu"); he was not prosecuted by the Government.^[70]

According to the Sustainable Development Policy Institute report 'Associated with the insistence on the Ideology of Pakistan has been an essential component of hate against India and the Hindus. For the upholders of the Ideology of Pakistan, the existence of Pakistan is defined only in relation to Hindus, and hence the Hindus have to be painted as negatively as possible'^[71] A 2005 report by the National Commission for Justice and Peace a non profit organization in Pakistan, found that Pakistan Studies textbooks in Pakistan have been used to articulate the hatred that Pakistani policy-makers have attempted to inculcate towards the Hindus. 'Vituperative animosities legitimise military and autocratic rule, nurturing a siege mentality. Pakistan Studies textbooks are an active site to represent India as a hostile neighbour' the report stated. 'The story of Pakistan's past is intentionally written to be distinct from, and often in direct contrast with, interpretations of history found in India. From the government-issued textbooks, students are taught that Hindus are backward and superstitious.' Further the report stated 'Textbooks reflect intentional obfuscation. Today's students, citizens of Pakistan and its future leaders are the victims of these partial truths'.^[72]^[73]^[74]^[75]

An editorial in Pakistan's oldest newspaper Dawn commenting on a report in The Guardian on Pakistani Textbooks noted 'By propagating concepts such as jihad, the inferiority of non-Muslims, India's ingrained enmity with Pakistan, etc., the textbook board publications used by all government schools promote a mindset that is bigoted and obscurantist. Since there are more children studying in these schools than in madrassahs the damage done is greater. '^[76]^[77] According to the historian Professor Mubarak Ali, textbook reform in Pakistan began with the introduction of Pakistan Studies and Islamic studies by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto in 1971 into the national curriculum as compulsory subject. Former military dictator Gen Zia-ul-Haq under a general drive towards Islamization, started the process of historical revisionism in earnest and exploited this initiative. 'The Pakistani establishment taught their children right from the beginning that this state was built on the basis of religion – that's why they don't have tolerance for other religions and want to wipe-out all of them.'^[77]^[78]

Other countries

Malaysia

In April 2006, local authorities demolished several Hindu temples to make way for developmental projects. Their excuse was that these temples were unlicensed and squatting on government land. In April and May 2006, several Hindu temples were demolished by city hall authorities in the country, accompanied by violence against Hindus.^[79] On April 21, 2006, the Malaimel Sri Selva Kaliamman Temple in Kuala Lumpur was reduced to rubble after the city hall sent in bulldozers.^[80]

The president of the Consumers Association of Subang and Shah Alam in Selangor had been helping to organise efforts to stop the local authorities in the Muslim dominated city of Shah Alam from demolishing a 107-year-old Hindu temple. The growing Islamization in Malaysia is a cause for concern to many Malaysians who follow minority religions such as Hinduism.^[81]

On May 11, 2006, armed city hall officers from Kuala Lumpur forcefully demolished part of a 60-year-old suburban temple that serves more than 1,000 Hindus. The "Hindu Rights Action Force", a coalition of several NGO's, have protested these demolitions by lodging complaints with the Malaysian Prime Minister.^[91] Many Hindu advocacy groups have protested what they allege is a systematic plan of temple cleansing in Malaysia. The official reason given by the Malaysian government has been that the temples were built "illegally". However, several of the temples are centuries old.^[82]

According to a lawyer for the Hindu Rights Action Task Force, a Hindu temple is demolished in Malaysia once every three weeks.^[83]

Malaysian Muslims have also grown more anti-Hindu over the years. In response to the proposed construction of a temple in Selangor, Muslims chopped off the head of a cow to protest, with leaders saying there would be blood if a temple was constructed in Shah Alam.^[84]

Laws in the country, especially those concerning religious identity, are generally slanted towards compulsion into converting to Islam^[85]

South Africa

In 2006, the son of an Islamic cleric named Ahmed Deedat circulated a DVD that denounced South African Hindus. The elder Deedat, former head of the Arab funded "Islamic Propagation Centre International" (IPCI), had previously circulated an anti-Hindu video in the 1980s where he said that Indian Muslims were 'fortunate' that their Hindu forefathers 'saw the light' and converted to Islam when Muslim rulers dominated some areas of India. His video was widely criticized. While Hindus in South Africa have largely ignored the new anti-Hindu DVD circulated by Deedat Junior, he has been severely criticized by local Muslims, including other members of the IPCI.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} The IPCI said in a statement that Yusuf Deedat did not represent the organisation in any way. Deedat Junior, undeterred by the opposition from his own brethren, continues to circulate the material.He has placed advertisements in newspapers inviting anyone to collect a free copy from his residence to see for themselves "what the controversy is about".^[86]

Trinidad and Tobago

The first Hindus arrived in British-ruled Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean aboard the Fatel Razack on May 31, 1845 as indentured laborers who were brought by the British after the abolition of slavery; they were followed by thousands more who came between 1845 to 1917. They worked on the sugarcane, rice, cocoa, and coffee estates. The indentured laborers primarily came from the Bhojpuri region and the Awadhi region of the Hindi Belt in North India. A significant minority also came from South India and very few came from the Punjab, Maharashtra, Kumaon, Garhwal, Jammu, Kashmir, Gujarat, Kutch, Odisha, and Bengal regions. A majority of the laborers were Hindu. Unlike the African slaves who they succeeded, the Indians were able to keep their culture and traditions. This led to many Hindu immigrants passing on the faith and despite efforts by Christian missionaries to convert them many continued to practice Hinduism. Today, Hinduism is the second largest religion in Trinidad and Tobago and the largest religion of the Indian population in Trinidad and Tobago. Although they were allowed to continue their religion they were met with contempt or indifference by the non-Hindu residents of the country. The Hindu and Muslim clashes that occurred in South Asia continued to occur in Trinidad and Tobago during the days of indentureship and especially while in the Partition of India was going on back in South Asia. During indentureship and even in the beginning after independence from the British, Hindus were treated as second class citizens. The Hindus in Trinidad and Tobago struggled during the early days after independence and even before during British colonial times over the granting of adult franchise, a Hindu marriage act, Hindu schools, cremation ordinance, the right to Diwali as a public holiday, and others. Many of these rights were later granted, due to the efforts of Adrian Cola Rienzi (Krishna Deonarine Tiwari) and the Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha, the major Hindu organization in Trinidad and Tobago led by Bhadase Sagan Maraj. The Temple in the Sea, an iconic Hindu temple in Trinidad and Tobago has its history rooted in the prejudices of Hinduism. It was originally built by an indentured laborer from British India named Sewdass Sadhu, who actually had built the first temple on property belonging to the estate owners and the temple had to be torn down and he was jailed. After that, he built a second temple out into the sea which became known as the Temple in the Sea. During the Black Power movement after independence in the 1960s-1970s many Hindu were targeted and attack and riots had broken out. These attacks, the poverty that affected many Hindus, and the status of being treated as second-class citizens led to many Hindu Trinidadians to migrate to the United Kingdom, United States, and Canada. After independence the Hindus were marginalized by the African-based People's National Movement (PNM) and the opposing party, the People's Democratic Party (PDP) led by Bhadase Sagan Maraj, later turning into the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) led by Rudranath Capildeo, then finally turning into the present-day United National Congress (UNC) party led by Basdeo Panday and Kamla Persad-Bissessar, was portrayed as a Hindu party and an Indian party and tactics were used against them. Hindus were described as a "recalcitrant and hostile minority", by Prime Minister Eric Williams. Hindus were alienated by such communal groups. The support of the PNM government to Christian Afro-Trinidadian and Tobagonian and Creole art forms such as Carnival and Christmas, while their public rejection and ridicule of Hindu art forms, was a particular source of contention for the Hindus. The displacement of PNM from power in 1985 would improve the circumstances. There has been persistent discontent among the Hindus with their marginalization. Many groups portray Hindus as "clannish, backward and miserly". During the General Elections of 1986, the absence of the Bhagavad Gita and the Quran at polling stations for required oath-taking was interpreted as a gross insult to Hindus and Muslims. The absence of any Hindu religious texts at the official residence of the President of Trinidad and Tobago during the swearing in of the new Government in 1986 was perceived as another insult to the minority communities since they were represented in the government. The national education system and curriculum have been repeatedly accused of such majority-oriented symbolism. The use of discernibly oriented prayers at Government schools, the non-representation of Hinduism in approved school textbooks, and the lack of emphasis on Hindu religious observance evoked deep resentment from the Hindu community. Intensified protests over the course of the 1980s led to an improvement in the state's attitudes towards Hindus.^[87] ^[88]

United Kingdom

Shaun Bailey

In October 2018, it was reported that Conservative Party London mayoral candidate Shaun Bailey had written a pamphlet, entitled No Man’s Land, for the Centre for Policy Studies. In it, Bailey argued that accommodating Hindus "[robs] Britain of its community" and is turning the country into a "crime riddled cess pool". He also claimed that South Asians "bring their culture, their country and any problems they might have, with them" and that this was not a problem within the black community "because we’ve shared a religion and in many cases a language". ^[89]

In the pamphlet, Bailey had confused the Hindu religion and the Hindi language: "You don’t know what to do. You bring your children to school and they learn far more about Diwali than Christmas. I speak to the people who are from Brent and they’ve been having Hindi (sic) days off."^[90]

The Conservative Party Deputy Chairman, James Cleverly, defended Bailey and insisted he was misunderstood, and that he was implying black boys were drifting into crime as a result of learning more about other faiths rather than "their own Christian culture".^[91] However, the anti-racism Hope Not Hate campaign group called Bailey's comments "grotesque".^[92] The comments were condemned by the Hindu Council of the United Kingdom who expressed "disappointment at the misrepresentation of our faith" by Bailey. ^[93]

United States

By the late 19th century, fear had already begun in North America over Chinese immigration supplying cheap labor to lay railroad tracks, mostly in California and elsewhere in the West Coast. In xenophobic jargon common in the day, ordinary workers, newspapers, and politicians uniformly opposed this "Yellow Peril". The common cause to eradicate Asians from the workforce gave rise to the Asiatic Exclusion League. When the fledgling Indian community of mostly Punjabi Sikhs settled in California, the xenophobia expanded to combat not only the East Asian Yellow Peril, but now the immigrants from British India, the Turban Tide, equally referred to as the Hindoo Invasion (sic).^[94]^[95]^[96]

The rise of the Indian American community in the United States has brought about some isolated incidences of attacks on them, as has been the case with many minority groups in the United States. Attacks specific to Hindus in the United States stem from what is often referred to as the "racialization of religion" among Americans, a process that begins when certain phenotypical features associated with a group and attached to race in popular discourse become associated with a particular religion or religions.The racialization of Hinduism in American perception has led to perceiving Hindus as a separate group and contributes to prejudices against them.^[97]

In 2019, Swaminarayan Temple in Kentucky was Vandalised by miscreants.They sprayed black paint on the deity and sprayed 'Jesus is the only God’ on the walls.The Christian cross was also spray pointed on various walls.^[98]^[99]In April 2015, a Hindu temple in north Texas has been vandalised with nasty images spray-painted on its walls.In February 2015, Hindu temples in Kent and the Seattle Metropolitan area were also vandalised.^[100]^[101]

Pat Robertson

In addition, there have been anti-Hindu views that are specific to the religion of Hinduism as well as mistaken racial perceptions. Pat Robertson in the United States has made remarks denouncing Hinduism as "demonic," believing that when Hindus "feel any sort of inspiration, whether it's by a river or under a tree, on top of a hill, they figure that some God or spirit is responsible for that. And so they'll worship that tree, they'll worship that hill or they'll worship anything."^[102] These remarks were widely condemned and disputed by Indian Americans and many non-partisan advocacy groups.^[103] Evangelical leader Albert Mohler defended Robertson's remarks, saying "any belief system, any world view, whether it's Zen Buddhism or Hinduism or dialectical materialism for that matter, Marxism, that keeps persons captive and keeps them from coming to faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, yes, is a demonstration of satanic power."^[104]

U.S. Congress

In July, 2007, The United States Senate conducted its morning prayer services with a Hindu prayer,^[105] a historical first. During the service, three disruptors, named Ante Nedlko Pavkovic, Katherine Lynn Pavkovic and Christian Renee Sugar, from the Fundamentalist Christian activist group Operation Save America^[116] protested that the Hindu prayer was "an abomination", and that they were "Christians and Patriots". They were swiftly arrested and charged with disrupting Congress.^[106]^[107]

The event generated a storm of protest from Christian right groups in the country, with the American Family Association (AFA) opposing the prayer and carrying out a campaign to lobby senators to protest it.^[108]^[109] Their representative attacked the proceedings as "gross idolatry".^[110] The AFA sent out an "Action Alert" to its members to e-mail, write letters, or call their Senators to oppose the Hindu prayer, stating it is "seeking the invocation of a non-monotheistic god."^[111]^[112]^[113] The "alert" stated that "since Hindus worship multiple gods, the prayer will be completely outside the American paradigm, flying in the face of the American motto One Nation Under God."^[114] The convocation by Zed was in fact disrupted by three protesters in the gallery reportedly shouting "this is an abomination" and other complaints.^[111]

California Textbook Controversy

A controversy in the US state of California concerning the portrayal of Hinduism in history textbooks began in 2005. The protest was led by Vedic Foundation (VF) and the American Hindu Education Foundation (HEF) by complaining to the California's Curriculum Commission, saying the coverage in sixth grade history textbooks of Indian history and Hinduism was biased against Hinduism; and points of contention includes a textbook's portrayal of the caste system, the Indo-Aryan migration theory, and the status of women in Indian society as the main features of Hinduism.

The California Department of Education (CDE) initially sought to resolve the controversy by appointing Shiva Bajpai, Professor Emeritus at California State University Northridge, as a one-man committee to review revisions proposed by the groups.^[115] Micheal Witzel and others revisited the proposed changed on behalf of the State Board of Education and suggested reverting some of the approved changes.^[116] In early 2006, the Hindu American Foundation sued the State Board over matters of process;^[116] the case was settled in 2009.

Dotbusters

The Dotbusters was a hate group in Jersey City, New Jersey that attacked and threatened South Asians in the fall of 1987. The name originates from the bindi traditionally worn by Hindu women and girls on their forehead. In July 1987, they had a letter published in the Jersey Journal^[117] stating that they would take any means necessary to drive the Indians out of Jersey City:

Notes

1. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://magazine.uchicago.edu/0412/features/index-print.shtml |author=Braverman, Amy M. |title=The interpretation of gods |year=2006 |accessdate=2007-04-01 |publisher=University of Chicago Magazine| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070402183904/http://magazine.uchicago.edu/0412/features/index-print.shtml| archivedate= 2 April 2007 | deadurl= no}}'
2. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-36220329|title=Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?|last=correspondent|first=Soutik Biswas Delhi|website=BBC News|access-date=2016-05-17}}
3. ^{{cite book|title=India: Emerging Power|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/India.html?id=sOTZqI5zREoC&hl=en |first=Stephen P.|last=Cohen|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8157-9839-2|page=21}}
4. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christian-caste |title=Christian caste-Indian Society |last=The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=The Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date= May 31, 2017}}
5. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/Hinduism-and-Islam |title= Hinduism |last=The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=The Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date= June 26, 2017}}
6. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2001/10/09/stories/13090244.htm|title=The Hindu : Who's afraid of dialogue?|website=www.thehindu.com|access-date=2017-06-02}}
7. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoFxBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT125|title=Pentecostals, Proselytization, and Anti-Christian Violence in Contemporary India|last=Bauman|first=Chad M.|date=2015-02-02|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=|isbn=9780190266318|location=|pages=125|language=en}}
8. ^{{cite web |url=https://swarajyamag.com/politics/catholic-church-and-others-must-apologise-for-nadia-nun-rape-accusations |author=Mazumdar, Jaideep |title=Catholic Church And Others Must Apologise For Nadia Nun Rape Accusations |year=2017 |accessdate=2017-08-11 |publisher=Swarajya Magazine}}
9. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/09/world/asia/indian-muslims-lose-hope-in-national-secular-party.html|title=Indian Muslims Lose Hope in National Secular Party|last=Bagri|first=Neha Thirani|date=2014-11-08|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-06-07|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}
10. ^{{cite news | date=8 January 2013 | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20942476 | work=BBC News | title=Politician Akbaruddin Owaisi held over 'hate speeches' | accessdate=8 January 2013}}
11. ^¹{{cite web | first=Kiran Kumar | last=S | date=4 January 2013 | accessdate=4 January 2013 | title=Owaisi clan’s provocative speeches | publisher=Niti Central | url=http://www.niticentral.com/2013/01/owaisi-clans-provocative-speeches.html}}
12. ^{{cite news|last=Singh|first=Tavleen|authorlink=Tavleen Singh|url=http://www.afternoondc.in/editorial/lets-talk-to-owaisi-not-jail-him/article_73278|date=10 January 2013|accessdate=10 March 2013|title=Let's talk to Owaisi, not jail him!|work=Afternoon Despatch & Courier|location=Mumbai, Maharashtra, India}}
13. ^{{cite news|last=Singh|first=Tavleen|authorlink=Tavleen Singh|url=http://www.afternoondc.in/editorial/lets-talk-to-owaisi-not-jail-him/article_73278|date=13 January 2013|accessdate=11 March 2013|title= "नफरत के सौदागर" [Merchants of Hate]|work=Jansatta (in Hindi)|location=Mumbai, Maharashtra, India}}
14. ^{{Cite news|url=http://m.deccanherald.com/articles.php?name=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deccanherald.com%2Fcontent%2F422879%2Fmuslim-preacher-apologises-insulting-hinduism.html|title=Muslim preacher apologises for insulting Hinduism|date=Jul 31, 2014|work=Deccan Herald|access-date=2017-06-20|language=en-UK}}
15. ^{{cite web|author1=Shaykh Muhammad Saalih al-Munajjid|title=Islam Question and Answer|url=http://islamqa.info/en/67626|accessdate=11 June 2015}}
16. ^{{cite journal |last=Engineer |first=Ashghar Ali |date=13–19 February 1999 |title=Hindu-Muslim Problem: An Approach |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=37 |issue=7 |page=397 |doi=10.2307/4407649 |jstor=4407649}}
17. ^Elliot and Dowson, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924073036745#page/n285/mode/2up Tarikh-i Mubarak-Shahi], The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Vol 4, Trubner London, p. 273
18. ^Elliot and Dowson, [https://archive.org/stream/historyindiaast04elligoog#page/n363/mode/2up Tabakat-i-Nasiri], The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Vol 2, Trubner London, pp. 347–67
19. ^Elliot and Dowson, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924073036745#page/n81/mode/2up Tarikh-i Mubarak-Shahi], The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Vol 4, Trubner London, pp. 68–69
20. ^Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani:an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, {{ISBN|81-85268-45-2}} pp. 138–139
21. ^¹Verma, V.P, Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought, Lakshmi Narasan Aggarwal Educational Publications, Agra 1986 pp. 218–220
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23. ^Mohibbul Hasan The History of Tipu Sultan (Delhi) 1971 pp 359
24. ^B.A. Saletare "Tipu Sultan as Defender of the Hindu Dharma" in Habib (Ed.) Confronting Colonialism, pp. 116–8
25. ^Ali, Sheikh. "Persian script of Tipu Sultan on the gateway to Krishnaraja Sagar Dam (KRS)". Biography of Tipu Sultan. Cal-Info. http://www.tipusultan.org/script1.htm. Retrieved 17 October 2006
26. ^ {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813050526/http://newstodaynet.com/guest/3110gu1.htm|date=13 August 2009}}
27. ^K.M. Panicker, Bhasha Poshini, August 1923
28. ^Kate Brittlebank Tipu Sultan's Search for Legitimacy: Islam and Kingship in a Hindu domain (Delhi: Oxford University Press) 1997
29. ^Irfan Habib "War and Peace. Tippu Sultan's Account of the last Phase of the Second War with the English, 1783-4" State and Diplomacy Under Tipu Sultan (Delhi) 2001 p. 5; Mohibbul Hasan writes "The reasons why Tipu was reviled are not far to seek. Englishmen were prejudiced against him because they regarded him as their most formidable rival and an inveterate enemy, and because, unlike other Indian rulers, he refused to become a tributary of the English Company. Many of the atrocities of which he has been accused were allegedly fabricated either by persons embittered and angry on account of the defeats which they had sustained at his hands, or by the prisoners of war who had suffered punishments which they thought they did not deserve. He was also misrepresented by those who were anxious to justify the wars of aggression which the Company's Government had waged against him. Moreover, his achievements were belittled and his character blackened in order that the people of Mysore might forget him and rally round the Raja, thus helping in the consolidation of the new regime" The History of Tipu Sultan (Delhi) 1971 p. 368
30. ^Brittlebank Tipu Sultan's search for legitimacy pp. 10–12. On p. 2 she writes "it is perhaps ironic that the aggressive Hinduism of some members of the Indian Community in the 1990s should draw upon an image of Tipu which, as we shall see, was initially constructed by the Subcontinent's colonizers."
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39. ^Taliban to mark Afghan Hindus, CNN (May 22, 2001).
40. ^¹[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/asia-jan-june01-afghanistan_05-22/ Taliban to Require Identity Badges for Non-Muslims], PBS NewsHour, PBS (May 22, 2001).
41. ^¹Luke Harding, [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/may/24/lukeharding Taliban defends Hindu badges plan], The Guardian (May 23, 2001).
42. ^¹Jack Kelley, Taliban: Hindus must wear identity labels, USA Today (May 22, 2001).
43. ^Taliban drop badge policy for Hindus, United Press International (June 27, 2001).
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45. ^A Bleak Future for Bangladesh Hindu's {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203220945/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2000/2/2000-2-07.shtml |date=3 February 2009 }}, hinduismtoday.com
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51. ^{{cite news|title=Mozena: Violence is not the way to resolution|url=http://www.clickittefaq.com/featured-area/mozena-violence-is-not-the-way-to-resolution/|accessdate=12 March 2013|newspaper=The Daily Ittefaq|date=March 11, 2013}}
52. ^{{cite web|title=Bangladesh: Wave of violent attacks against Hindu minority|url=http://amnesty.org/en/for-media/press-releases/bangladesh-wave-violent-attacks-against-hindu-minority-2013-03-06#.UTeKDSrYyD8.twitter|work=Press releases|publisher=Amnesty International|accessdate=8 March 2013}}
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56. ^{{cite news |date=May 5, 2014 |title=Mob of 3000 attack Hindu households, temple in Bangladesh |url=http://www.firstpost.com/world/mob-of-3000-attack-hindu-households-temple-in-bangladesh-1509359.html |newspaper=Firstpost |location=Bangladesh |publisher=Firstpost |accessdate=May 27, 2014}}
57. ^Why are the Jews ‘kanjoos’? —Khaled Ahmed's Review of the Urdu press,Daily times (Pakistan)
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72. ^Hate mongering worries minorities, Daily Times (Pakistan), 2006-04-25
73. ^In Pakistan's Public Schools, Jihad Still Part of Lesson Plan - The Muslim nation's public school texts still promote hatred and jihad, reformers say. By Paul Watson, Times Staff Writer; August 18, 2005; Los Angeles Times. 4 Page article online Retrieved on 02 January 2010
74. ^Primers Of Hate - History or biology, Pakistani students get anti-India lessons in all their textbooks; 'Hindu, Enemy Of Islam' - These are extracts from government-sponsored textbooks approved by the National Curriculum Wing of the Federal Ministry of Education. By AMIR MIR; Oct 10, 2005; Outlook India Magazine Retrieved on 02 January 2010
75. ^Noor's cure: A contrast in views; by Arindam Banerji; July 16, 2003; Rediff India Abroad Retrieved on 02 January 2010
76. ^Curriculum of hatred {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526140357/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/pakistan/11-curriculum-of-hatred--03 |date=26 May 2009 }}, Dawn (newspaper), 2009-05-20
77. ^¹‘School texts spreading more extremism than seminaries’ By Our Special Correspondent; Tuesday, 19 May 2009; Dawn Newspaper. Retrieved 01 January 2010
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