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词条 Assembly of the International Space Station
释义

  1. Logistics

  2. Columbia disaster and changes in construction plans

     Disaster and consequences  Changes in construction plans 

  3. Assembly sequence

  4. Cancelled modules

  5. Proposed modules

  6. Cost

  7. See also

  8. References

  9. External links

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}{{More citations needed|date=November 2008}}{{Update|date=April 2016}}

The process of assembling the International Space Station (ISS) has been under way since the 1990s. Zarya, the first ISS module, was launched by a Proton rocket on November 20, 1998. The STS-88 shuttle mission followed two weeks after Zarya was launched, bringing Unity, the first of three node modules, and connecting it to Zarya. This bare 2-module core of the ISS remained unmanned for the next one and a half years, until in July 2000 the Russian module Zvezda was launched by a Proton rocket, allowing a maximum crew of two astronauts or cosmonauts to be on the ISS permanently.

The ISS has a pressurized volume of approximately 1,000 cubic meters, a mass of approximately 420,000 kilograms, approximately 100 kilowatts of power output, a truss 108.4 meters long, modules 74 meters long, and a crew of six. Building the complete station required more than 40 assembly flights. As of March 2011, 26 Space Shuttle flights have docked with ISS to add elements, and 9 other Shuttle flights have flown logistics-servicing missions to ISS without adding major external elements. These 35 Shuttle missions include 9 SpaceHab and 10 MPLM logistics-servicing missions in various combinations. The last two Shuttle flights added one of the two final elements of ISS, followed by a Proton launch to deliver the European Robotic Arm in 2019. Other assembly flights consisted of modules lifted by the Russian Proton rocket or in the case of Pirs and Poisk by a Soyuz-U rocket.{{update after|2012|12|27}}

Some of the larger modules include:

  • Zarya (launched 20 November 1998)
  • Unity Module (launched 4 December 1998, also known as Node 1)
  • Zvezda (launched 12 July 2000)
  • Destiny Laboratory Module (launched 7 February 2001)
  • Columbus orbital facility (launched 7 February 2008)
  • Japanese Experiment Module, also known as Kibo (launched in multiple flights between 2008-2009)
  • The truss and solar panels are also a large part of the station. (launched in multiple flights between 2000-2009)

Logistics

The space station is located in orbit around the Earth at an altitude of approximately {{convert|410|km|mi|abbr=on}}, a type of orbit usually termed low Earth orbit (the actual height varies over time by several kilometers due to atmospheric drag and reboosts). It orbits Earth in a period of about 90 minutes; by August 2007 it had completed more than 50,000 orbits since launch of Zarya on 20 November 1998.

A total of 14 main pressurized modules were scheduled to be part of the ISS by its completion date in 2010.[1] A number of smaller pressurized sections will be adjunct to them (Soyuz spacecraft (permanently 2 as lifeboats - 6 months rotations), Progress transporters (2 or more), the Quest and Pirs airlocks, as well as periodically the H-II Transfer Vehicle).

The ISS, when completed, will consist of a set of communicating pressurized modules connected to a truss, on which four large pairs of photovoltaic modules (solar panels) are attached. The pressurized modules and the truss are perpendicular: the truss spanning from starboard to port and the habitable zone extending on the aft-forward axis. Although during the construction the station attitude may vary, when all four photovoltaic modules are in their definitive position the aft-forward axis will be parallel to the velocity vector.[2]

In addition to the assembly and utilization flights, approximately 30 Progress spacecraft flights are required to provide logistics until 2010. Experimental equipment, fuel and consumables are and will be delivered by all vehicles visiting the ISS: the SpaceX Dragon, the Russian Progress, the European ATV and the Japanese HTV, and space station downmass will be carried back to Earth facilities on the Dragon.[3]

Columbia disaster and changes in construction plans

Disaster and consequences

At one point, there was some uncertainty over the future of the ISS. The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on 1 February 2003, the subsequent two and a half-year suspension of the U.S. Space Shuttle program, followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, were major obstacles.

The Space Shuttle program resumed flight on 26 July 2005, with the STS-114 mission of Discovery. This mission to the ISS was intended both to test new safety measures implemented since the Columbia disaster, and to deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by the external tank, leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this issue was resolved.

Between the Columbia disaster and the resumption of Shuttle launches, crew exchanges were carried out solely using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. Starting with Expedition 7, two-astronaut caretaker crews were launched in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a larger than planned amount of waste accumulated, temporarily hindering station operations in 2004. However Progress transports and the STS-114 shuttle flight took care of this problem.

Changes in construction plans

ISS construction experienced delays due to the halting of all NASA Shuttle flights following the Columbia disaster in early 2003, although there had been prior delays due to Shuttle problems, and the Russian space agency's budget constraints. During the shuttle stand-down, construction of the ISS was halted and the science conducted aboard was limited due to the crew size of two. Many changes were made to the originally planned ISS, even before the Columbia disaster. Modules and other structures were cancelled or replaced and the number of Shuttle flights to the ISS was reduced from previously planned numbers. However more than 80% of the hardware intended to be part of the ISS in the late 1990s was orbited and is now part of the ISS's configuration.

In March 2006, a meeting of the heads of the five participating space agencies accepted the new ISS construction schedule that planned to complete the ISS by 2010.[4] A crew of six has been established as of May 2009, following 12 Shuttle construction flights after the second "Return to Flight" mission STS-121. Requirements for stepping up the crew size included enhanced environmental support on the ISS, a second Soyuz permanently docked on the station to function as a second 'lifeboat', more frequent Progress flights to provide double the amount of consumables, more fuel for orbit raising maneuvers, and a sufficient supply line of experimental equipment.

Later additions included the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) in 2016, and numerous Russian components are planned as part of the in-orbit construction of OPSEK.

Assembly sequence

The ISS is made up of 16 pressurized modules: four Russian modules (Pirs, Zvezda, Poisk and Rassvet), nine US modules (Zarya,[5],BEAM,[6] Leonardo, Harmony, Quest, Tranquility, Unity, Cupola, and Destiny), two Japanese modules (the JEM-ELM-PS and JEM-PM) and one European module (Columbus). One more Russian pressurized module (Nauka) is scheduled to be added to the station.

Although not permanently docked with the ISS, Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules (MPLMs) formed part of the ISS during some Shuttle missions. An MPLM was attached to Harmony (initially to Unity) and was used for resupply and logistics flights.

Spacecraft attached to the ISS also extend the pressurized volume. At least one Soyuz spacecraft is always docked as a 'lifeboat' and is replaced every six months by a new Soyuz as part of crew rotation.

The table below shows the sequence in which these components were or will be added to the ISS. The numbers provided are indications and represent launch weight and dimensions.

Element Assembly
flight		 Launch
date		 Launch
vehicle		 Length
(m)		 Diameter
(m)		Mass
(kg)		 Pressurized Volume
(m^3)		Isolated ViewStation View
Zarya (FGB)[7] 1A/R 1998-11-20 Proton-K 12.6 4.1 19,323
Unity (Node 1),[8] PMA-1 & PMA-2 2A 1998-12-04105}} (STS-88) 5.49 4.57 11,612
Zvezda (Service Module)[9] 1R 2000-07-12 Proton-K 13.1 4.15 19,051 75
Z1 Truss & PMA-3 3A 2000-10-11103}} (STS-92) 4.9 (Z1) 4.2 (Z1) 8,755 (Z1)
P6 Truss & Solar Arrays 4A 2000-11-30105}} (STS-97) 73.2 4.9 15,824
Destiny (US Laboratory)[10] 5A 2001-02-07104}} (STS-98) 8.53 4.27 14,515 106
External Stowage Platform-1 5A.1 2001-03-08103}} (STS-102)
Canadarm2 (SSRMS) 6A 2001-04-19105}} (STS-100) 17.6 0.35 4,899
Quest (Joint Airlock)[11] 7A 2001-07-12104}} (STS-104) 5.5 4 6,064 34
Pirs (Docking Compartment & Airlock) 4R 2001-09-14 Soyuz-U
(Progress M-SO1)		 4.91 2.55 3,580 13
S0 Truss[12] 8A 2002-04-08104}} (STS-110) 13.4 4.6 13,970
Mobile Base System UF2 2002-06-05105}} (STS-111) 5.7 2.9 1,450
S1 Truss 9A 2002-10-07104}} (STS-112) 13.7 4.6 14,120
P1 Truss 11A 2002-11-23105}} (STS-113) 13.7 4.6 14,000
ESP-2 LF1 2005-07-26103}} (STS-114) 3.65 4.9 2,676
P3/P4 Truss & Solar Arrays[13] 12A 2006-09-09104}} (STS-115) 13.8 4.9 15,900
P5 Truss[14] 12A.1 2006-12-09103}} (STS-116) 3.4 4.6 1,818
S3/S4 Truss & Solar Arrays 13A 2007-06-08104}} (STS-117) 13.8 4.9 15,900
S5 Truss and ESP-3 13A.1 2007-08-08105}} (STS-118) 13.7 3.9 12,598
Harmony (Node 2)
Relocation of P6 Truss		 10A 2007-10-23103}} (STS-120) 7.2 4.48 14,288 75.5
Columbus (European Laboratory)[15] 1E 2008-02-07104}} (STS-122) 7 4.5 12,800
Dextre (SPDM)
Japanese Logistics Module (ELM-PS)		 1J/A 2008-03-11105}} (STS-123) 3.9 (ELM-PS) 4.4 (ELM-PS) 4,200 (ELM-PS)
Japanese Pressurized Module (JEM-PM)
JEM Robotic Arm (JEM-RMS)[16][17]		 1J 2008-05-31103}} (STS-124) 11.2 (JEM-PM) 4.4 (JEM-PM) 15,900 (JEM-PM)
S6 Truss & Solar Arrays 15A 2009-03-15103}} (STS-119) 73.2 10.7 15,900
Japanese Exposed Facility (JEM-EF) 2J/A 2009-07-15105}} (STS-127) 4,100
Poisk (MRM-2)[18][19] 5R 2009-11-10 Soyuz-U
(Progress M-MIM2)		 3,670
ExPRESS Logistics Carriers 1 & 2 ULF3 2009-11-16104}} (STS-129)
Cupola &
Tranquility (Node 3)		 20A 2010-02-08105}} (STS-130) 6.5 (Node 3)
1.5 (Cupola)		 4.25 (Node 3)
2.95 (Cupola)		 12,247 (Node 3)
1,800 (Cupola)
Rassvet (MRM-1)[20] ULF4 2010-05-14104}} (STS-132) 5,075
Leonardo (PMM) and EXPRESS Logistics Carrier 4 ULF5 2011-02-24103}} (STS-133) 6.6 4.57 9,896 (Leonardo) 31
Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, OBSS and EXPRESS Logistics Carrier 3 ULF6 2011-05-16105}} (STS-134) 6,731 (AMS-02)
Bigelow Expandable Activity Module[21] 2016-04-08 Falcon 9

(SpaceX CRS-8)

 4 3.2 1,360 16
NanoRacks Airlock Module 2019-10-15[22][23] Falcon 9

(SpaceX CRS-19)[24]

Nauka (MLM)
European Robotic Arm[25]		 3R 2020[26]Proton-M 20,300 (Nauka) 70
Prichal 2022 (TBD)[27]Soyuz 2.1b

(Progress M-UM)

 4,000
NEM-1 (SPM-1)2022 (TBD)[27]Proton-M
Element Assembly
flight		 Launch
date		 Launch
vehicle		 Length
(m)		 Diameter
(m)		 Mass
(kg)		 Pressurized Volume
(m^3)		Isolated ViewStation View

Cancelled modules

  • Interim Control Module - not needed once Zvezda was launched
  • ISS Propulsion Module - not needed once Zvezda was launched
  • Habitation Module (HAB) - With the cancellation of the Habitation Module, sleeping places are now spread throughout the station. There are two in the Russian segment and four in the US segment. It is not necessary to have a separate 'bunk' in space — many visitors just strap their sleeping bag to the wall of a module, get into it and sleep.
  • Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) - replaced by two Soyuz spacecraft
  • Centrifuge Accommodations Module (CAM) - would have been attached to Harmony (Node 2)
  • Science Power Platform (SPP) - power will be provided to the Russian segments partly by the US solar cell platforms
  • Russian Research Modules (RM1 and RM2) - to be replaced by single Multipurpose Laboratory Module (Nauka)
  • Universal Docking Module (UDM) - canceled along with the Research Modules which were to connect to it

Proposed modules

The following modules are proposed, but not yet confirmed in the ISS launch manifests.

  • American Node 4 - Also known as the Docking Hub System (DHS),[28] would allow the station to have more docking ports for visiting vehicles and would allow inflatable habitats and technology demonstrations to be tested as part of the station.[29]
  • Nautilus-X Centrifuge Demonstration - If produced, this centrifuge will be the first in-space demonstration of sufficient scale centrifuge for artificial partial-g effects. It will be designed to become a sleep module for the ISS crew.[30]

Cost

The ISS is credited as the most expensive item ever built, costing around $150 billion (USD),[31] making it more expensive than Skylab (costing 2.2 billion USD) [32] and Mir (4.2 billion USD).[33]

See also

  • List of unmanned spaceflights to the ISS
  • List of human spaceflights to the ISS

References

1. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/iss_manifest.html|title=Consolidated Launch Manifest|accessdate=2006-07-15|publisher=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060707132806/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/iss_manifest.html| archivedate= 7 July 2006 | deadurl= no}}
2. ^{{Cite web|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/flash/iss_attitude.html|title=What are the ISS attitudes?|accessdate=2006-09-11|format=Flash|publisher=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060902031603/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/flash/iss_attitude.html| archivedate= 2 September 2006 | deadurl= no}}
3. ^{{cite journal |last=Black|first=Charles |title=When Dragon made commercial spaceflight a reality|journal=SEN|date=24 December 2012 |url=http://www.sen.com/news/when-dragon-made-private-space-real.html |accessdate=2012-12-26 |quote=[Dragon's] ability to return goods is currently unique because all the other regular supply ships - Europe's Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), Japan's HTV (or "Kounotori") and Russia's Progress - all burn up during controlled re-entry.}}
4. ^{{cite web | last = Coppinger | first = Rob | date = 3 March 2006 | url = http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2006/03/03/205237/nasa-commits-to-shuttle-missions-to-international-space.html | title = NASA commits to Shuttle missions to International Space Station | publisher = FlightGlobal | accessdate = 16 September 2006 }}
5. ^https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/zarya-cargo-module . Retrieved 3 March 2019.
6. ^https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/10/nasa-tries-an-inflatable-room-on-the-space-station-likes-it/ . Retrieved 27 November 2017.
7. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/isszarya.htm|title=ISS Zarya|publisher=Encyclopaedia Astronautica|first=Mark |last=Wade|accessdate=2009-03-11|date=15 July 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090227060517/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/isszarya.htm| archivedate= 27 February 2009 | deadurl= no}}
8. ^{{Cite web|title=Unity Connecting Module: Cornerstone for a Home in Orbit|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/pdfs/unity.pdf|format=PDF|date=January 1999|accessdate=2009-03-11|publisher=NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090317204752/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/pdfs/unity.pdf| archivedate= 17 March 2009 | deadurl= no}}
9. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/sm.html|title=Zvezda Service Module|publisher=NASA|date=11 March 2009|accessdate=2009-03-11| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090323030726/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/sm.html| archivedate= 23 March 2009 | deadurl= no}}
10. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/destiny.html|title=US Destiny Laboratory|date=26 March 2007|accessdate=2007-06-26|publisher = NASA| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070709153924/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/destiny.html| archivedate= 9 July 2007 | deadurl= no}}
11. ^{{Cite web|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/eva/outside.html|title=Space Station Extravehicular Activity|accessdate=2009-03-11|publisher=NASA|date=4 April 2004| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090403213449/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/eva/outside.html| archivedate= 3 April 2009 | deadurl= no}}
12. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/its.html|title=Space Station Assembly: Integrated Truss Structure|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2007-12-02| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071207081810/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/its.html| archivedate= 7 December 2007 | deadurl= no}}
13. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/components/docs/P3-P4.pdf|format=pdf|title=P3 and P4 to expand station capabilities, providing a third and fourth solar array|publisher=Boeing|date=July 2006|accessdate=2007-12-02}}
14. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/182728main_STS-118_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-118 MISSION OVERVIEW: BUILD THE STATION…BUILD THE FUTURE|publisher=NASA PAO|accessdate=2007-12-02|date=July 2007|format=PDF| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071201130531/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/182728main_STS-118_Press_Kit.pdf| archivedate= 1 December 2007 | deadurl= no}}
15. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESAAYI0VMOC_iss_0.html|title=Columbus laboratory|publisher=ESA|accessdate=2009-03-06|date=10 January 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090330191925/http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESAAYI0VMOC_iss_0.html| archivedate= 30 March 2009 | deadurl= no}}
16. ^{{Cite web|url=http://kibo.jaxa.jp/en/about/ |publisher=JAXA |accessdate=2009-03-06 |date=25 September 2008 |title=About Kibo |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310171550/http://kibo.jaxa.jp/en/about/ |archivedate=10 March 2009 }}
17. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/jem.html|title=Kibo Japanese Experiment Module|publisher=NASA|date=23 November 2007|accessdate=2008-11-22| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081023071601/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/jem.html| archivedate= 23 October 2008 | deadurl= no}}
18. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_dc.html|title=Docking Compartment-1 and 2|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com|first=Anatoly |last=Zak|accessdate=26 March 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090210130224/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_dc.html| archivedate= 10 February 2009 | deadurl= no}}
19. ^{{Cite web|publisher=NASASpaceflight.com|first=Chris |last=Bergin|date=9 November 2009|accessdate=10 November 2009|title=Russian module launches via Soyuz for Thursday ISS docking|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/11/live-russian-module-launch-towards-iss-on-soyuz/| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20091113190354/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/11/live-russian-module-launch-towards-iss-on-soyuz/| archivedate= 13 November 2009 | deadurl= no}}
20. ^{{cite press | url = http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/apr/HQ_C07-18_Roscosmos.html | title = NASA Extends Contract With Russia's Federal Space Agency | publisher = NASA|date=9 April 2007|accessdate=2007-06-15| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070623120556/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/apr/HQ_C07-18_Roscosmos.html| archivedate= 23 June 2007 | deadurl= no}}
21. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/beam_feature.html|title=NASA to Test Bigelow Expandable Module on Space Station|date=16 January 2013|publisher=NASA|accessdate=16 January 2013}}
22. ^{{cite web|url=http://spider.seds.org/shuttle/iss-sche.html|title=International Space Station Flight Schedule|last=Frommert|first=Hartmut|date=8 December 2018|access-date=10 December 2018}}
23. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/space/uscom-man.txt|title=United States Commercial ELV Launch Manifest|last=Pietrobon|first=Steven|date=19 January 2019|access-date=19 January 2019}}
24. ^http://nanoracks.com/nanoracks-adds-thales-alenia-space-to-airlock/
25. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.khrunichev.ru/khrunichev_eng/live/full_mks.asp?id=13190|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927002737/http://www.khrunichev.ru/khrunichev_eng/live/full_mks.asp?id=13190|archivedate=27 September 2007|publisher=Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Centre|title=FGB-based Multipurpose Lab Module (MLM)|accessdate=2008-10-31}}
26. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/space/russia-man.txt|title=Russian Launch Manifest|last=Pietrobon|first=Steven|date=8 February 2019|access-date=8 February 2019}}
27. ^1 {{cite news|url=https://www.rbc.ru/interview/politics/10/01/2019/5c35bef19a794700cd1694fd|title=Рогозин — РБК: "Формула "космос вне политики" не работает"|date=10 January 2019|accessdate=12 January 2019|language=ru|trans-title=Rogozin to RBC: The "cosmos out of politics" formula does not work|website=RBC.ru}}
28. ^ISS Managers review long-term configuration of International Space Station | NASASpaceFlight.com
29. ^Test article could facilitate space station applications - 31 August 2010
30. ^[https://www.scribd.com/doc/51592987/Nautilus-X-Holderman-1-26-11 Nautilus-X-Holderman_1-26-11]
31. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.science20.com/robert_inventor/is_the_international_space_station_the_most_expensive_single_item_ever_built-156922|title=Is The International Space Station The Most Expensive Single Item Ever Built?|date=2014-08-27|website=Science 2.0|language=en|access-date=2018-05-03}}
32. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1579/1|title=The Space Review: Costs of US piloted programs|website=www.thespacereview.com|access-date=2018-05-03}}
33. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/24/world/russians-find-pride-and-regret-in-mir-s-splashdown.html|title=Russians Find Pride, and Regret, in Mir's Splashdown|last=Tyler|first=Patrick E.|date=2001-03-24|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-05-03|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}

External links

  • Animated ISS assembly process, mission designations and dates are included.
  • [https://www.pbs.org/spacestation/station/components_detail.htm Diagram of planned components of the ISS], positions of cancelled modules can be seen.
Media articles
  • How It Works magazine - ISS nears completion
{{ISS modules}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Assembly of the International Space Station}}

1 : International Space Station
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