| 词条 | Barrier troops |
| 释义 |
Barrier troops, blocking units, or anti-retreat forces are troops that are placed behind the front lines during a battle in order to shoot any soldiers attempting to retreat without orders or desert. The most often cited example of their use comes with the Soviets' Red Army. In the National Revolutionary ArmyDuring the Battle of Nanking, a battalion of the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) was guarding the Yijiang Gate and was under orders to 'let no one through'. On December 12, 1937, the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) collapsed against the Japanese onslaught. NRA units tried to retreat without orders through the gate, and the battalion shot into the crowd, killing many people.[1] In the Red ArmyIn the Red Army of the Soviet Union, the concept of barrier troops first arose in August 1918 with the formation of the заградительными отрядами (zagraditelnye otriady), translated as "blocking troops" or "anti-retreat detachments" ({{lang-ru|заградотряды, заградительные отряды, отряды заграждения}}).[2] The barrier troops were composed of personnel drawn from Cheka punitive detachments or from regular Red Army infantry regiments. The Red Army, in man power, sized up to about 2.9 million troops at the start of World War 2.[3] The first use of the barrier troops by the Red Army occurred in the late summer and fall on the Eastern front during the Russian Civil War, when commander Mikhail Tukhachevsky was authorized by War Commissar Leon Trotsky of the Communist Bolshevik government to station blocking detachments behind unreliable Red Army infantry regiments in the 1st Red Army, with orders to shoot if they either deserted or retreated without permission.[2] In December 1918, Trotsky ordered that additional barrier troops detachments be raised, for attachment to each infantry formation in the Red Army. On December 18 he cabled: "How do things stand with the blocking units? As far as I am aware they have not been included in our establishment and it appears they have no personnel. It is absolutely essential that we have at least an embryonic network of blocking units and that we work out a procedure for bringing them up to strength and deploying them."[2] The barrier troops were also used to enforce Bolshevik control over food supplies in areas controlled by the Red Army, a role which soon earned them the hatred of the Russian civilian population.[4] The concept was re-introduced on a large scale during the Second World War.[5] On June 27, 1941, in response to reports of unit disintegration in battle and desertion from the ranks in the Soviet Red Army, the 3rd Department (military counterintelligence of Soviet Army) of the USSR's Narkomat of Defense issued a directive creating mobile barrier forces composed of NKVD personnel to operate on roads, railways, forests, etc. for the purpose of catching 'deserters and suspicious persons'. These forces were given the acronym SMERSH (from the Russian Smert shpionam – Death to spies).[6][7] SMERSH detachments were created from NKVD troops, augmented with counterintelligence operatives, and were under the command of the NKVD.[6] With the continued deterioration of the military situation in the face of the German offensive of 1941, SMERSH and other NKVD punitive detachments acquired a new mission: to prevent the unauthorized withdrawal of Red Army forces from the battle line.[6][7] The first troops of this kind were formed in the Bryansk Front on September 5, 1941. On September 12, 1941, Joseph Stalin issued the Stavka Directive No. 1919 (Директива Ставки ВГК №001919) concerning the creation of barrier troops in rifle divisions of the Southwestern Front, to suppress panic retreats. Each Red Army division was to have an anti-retreat detachment equipped with transport totalling one company for each regiment. Their primary goal was to maintain strict military discipline and to prevent disintegration of the front line by any means, including the use of machine guns to indiscriminately shoot any personnel retreating without authorization.[8] These barrier troops were usually formed from ordinary military units and placed under NKVD command. In 1942, after the creation of penal battalions by Stavka Directive No. 227 (Директива Ставки ВГК №227) issued on 28 July 1942, anti-retreat detachments were used to prevent withdrawal or desertion by penal units as well.However Penal military unit personnel were always rearguarded by NKVD or SMERSH anti-retreat detachments, and not by regular Red Army infantry forces.[6] As per Order No. 227, each Army should have had 3–5 barrier squads up to 200 persons each. A report to Commissar General of State Security Lavrentiy Beria on October 10, 1941, noted that since the beginning of the war, NKVD anti-retreat troops had detained a total of 657,364 retreating, spies, traitors, instigators and deserting personnel, of which 25,878 were arrested (of which 10,201 were sentenced to death by court martial and the rest were returned to active duty).[9] At times, barrier troops were involved in battle operations along with regular soldiers, as noted by Aleksandr Vasilevsky in his directive N 157338 from October 1, 1942. Order No. 227 also stipulated to capture or shoot "cowards" and fleeing panicked troops,at the rear the blocking detachments In the first three months shot 1,000 penal troops and sent 24,993 to penal battalions.[10] By October 1942 the idea of regular blocking detachments was quietly dropped, By 29 October 1944 the units were officially disbanded.[11][12] Practice and results of useArmy General Hero of the Soviet Union P. N. Lashchenko: {{Quote|text="Yes, there were barrage detachments. But I do not know if any of them would shoot at their own people, at least in our sector of the front. Already, I requested archival documents on this subject; there were no such documents. The detachments were at a distance from the front, covered the troops from the rear from the saboteurs and the enemy landing, detained deserters, who, unfortunately, were; brought order to the crossings, sent soldiers who had strayed from their units to assembly points. I will say more, the front received a replenishment, naturally, not fired, as they say, not smelled gunpowder, and protective detachments consisting solely of soldiers already fired, the most persistent and courageous, were like a reliable and strong shoulder of the elder. It often happened that the detachments found themselves face to face with the same German tanks, chains of German machine gunners and suffered heavy losses in battles. This fact is irrefutable." |author=Army General Hero of the Soviet Union P. N. Lashchenko }} According to an official letter addressed in October 1941 to Lavrentiy Beria, in the period between the beginning of Operation Barbarossa to early December 1941, NKVD detachments had arrested 657,364 servicemen who had fallen behind their lines and fled from the front. Of these detainees, 25,878 were arrested, and the remaining 632,486 were formed in units and sent back to the front. Among those arrested included accused 1505 spies, 308 saboteurs, 2621 traitors, 2643 "panties and alarmists", 3987 distributors of "provocative rumors", and 4371 others. 10,201 of them were shot, meaning approximately 1.5% of those arrested were sentenced to death. For a thorough check of the Red Army soldiers who were in captivity or surrounded by the enemy, by the decision of the State Defense Committee No. 1069ss of December 27, 1941, army collection and forwarding points were established in each army and special camps of the NKVD were organized. In 1941–1942, 27 special camps were created, but in connection with the inspection and shipment of verified servicemen to the front, they were gradually eliminated (by the beginning of 1943, only 7 special camps were operating). According to official data, in 1942, 177,081 former prisoners of war and surrounding men entered special camps. After checking by special departments of the NKVD, 150,521 people were transferred to the Red Army. On October 29, 1944, Order No. 0349 of the People's Commissar for Defense I. V. Stalin, the barrage detachments were disbanded due to a significant change in the situation at the front. Personnel joined the rifle units. In filmThe 2001 film Enemy at the Gates shows Soviet Red Army barrier troops using a PM M1910 to gun down the few retreating survivors of a failed charge on a German position during the Battle of Stalingrad. References1. ^{{Cite book|title=Shanghai and Nanjing 1937: Massacre on the Yangtze|last=Lai|first=Bejamin|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2017|isbn=978 1 47281 749 5|location=|pages=76-77|quote=|via=}} 2. ^1 2 Dmitri Volkogonov, Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary, transl. and edited by Harold Shukman, HarperCollins Publishers, London (1996), p. 180 3. ^{{Cite book|title=Stalin and Stalinism|last=McCauley|first=Martin|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|location=New York, New York|pages=2099}} 4. ^Lih, Lars T., Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921, University of California Press (1990), p. 131 5. ^Overy, R. J., The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia, W. W. Norton & Company (2004), {{ISBN|0-393-02030-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-393-02030-4}}, p. 535 6. ^1 2 3 Stephan, Robert, "Smersh: Soviet Military Counter-Intelligence during the Second World War", Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 22, No. 4, Intelligence Services during the Second World War: Part 2 (October, 1987), pp. 585–613 7. ^1 Holley, David, "Exhibit in Moscow Celebrates a Soviet-Era Intelligence Agency", "Interview of Vadim Telitsyn", Los Angeles Times, 25 May 2003, Section A-3 8. ^Mawdsley, Evan, The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union 1929–1953, Manchester University Press (2003), {{ISBN|0-7190-6377-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7190-6377-0}}, p. 135 9. ^A. Toptygin, Neizvestny Beria (Moscow and St. Petersburg, 2002), p. 121 10. ^{{Cite book|title=Night Combat|last=Toppe|first=Alfred|publisher=United States Army Center of Military History|year=1998|isbn=978-0-7881-7080-5|location=Washington, D.C|pages=28}} 11. ^{{Cite book|title=Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953|last=Roberts|first=Geoffrey|publisher=Yale University Press.|year=2006|isbn=0-300-11204-1|location=|pages=132}} 12. ^{{Cite web|url=http://bdsa.ru/%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B-%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%B7%D0%B0-1944-%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4/784-636|title=ПРИКАЗ О РАСФОРМИРОВАНИИ ОТДЕЛЬНЫХ ЗАГРАДИТЕЛЬНЫХ ОТРЯДОВ|website=bdsa.ru|access-date=2019-03-31}} Further reading
2 : NKVD|Military of the Soviet Union |
| 随便看 |
|
开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。