“Buddhism and Hinduism”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Buddhism attained prominence in the Indian subcontinent as it was supported by royal courts, but started to decline after the Gupta era and virtually disappeared from India in the 11th century CE, except in some pockets of India. It has continued to exist outside of India and had become the major religion in several Asian countries.

Upanishads

Certain Buddhist teachings appear to have been formulated in response to ideas presented in the early Upanishads – in some cases concurring with them, and in other cases criticizing or re-interpreting them.^[2]^[3]^[4]

The influence of Upanishads, the earliest philosophical texts of Hindus on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. While Radhakrishnan, Oldenberg and Neumann were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, Eliot and Thomas highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads.^[5]

Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies.^[6] In Buddhist texts he is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as "pernicious views".^[7] Later schools of Indian religious thought were influenced by this interpretation and novel ideas of the Buddhist tradition of beliefs.^[8]

Royal support

In later years, there is significant evidence that both Buddhism and Hinduism were supported by Indian rulers, regardless of the rulers' own religious identities. Buddhist kings continued to revere Hindu deities and teachers and many Buddhist temples were built under the patronage of Hindu rulers.^[9] This was because Buddhism has never been considered an alien religion to that of Hinduism in India but as only one of the many strains of Hinduism. Kalidas' work shows the ascension of Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism.^[10] By the eighth century, Shiva and Vishnu had replaced Buddha in pujas of royalty.^[11]^[12]^[13]

Similarities

Basic vocabulary

The Buddha approved many of the terms already used in philosophical discussions of his era; however, many of these terms carry a different meaning in the Buddhist tradition. For example, in the Samaññaphala Sutta, the Buddha is depicted presenting a notion of the "three knowledges" (tevijja) – a term also used in the Vedic tradition to describe knowledge of the Vedas – as being not texts, but things that he had experienced (these are not noble truths{{clarify|date=July 2014}}).^[14] The true "three knowledges" are said to be constituted by the process of achieving enlightenment, which is what the Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of the night of his enlightenment.^[15]

Karma

Karma (Sanskrit: कर्म from the root kṛ, "to do") is a word meaning action or activity and often implies its subsequent results (also called karma-phala, "the fruits of action"). It is commonly understood as a term to denote the entire cycle of cause and effect as described in the philosophies of a number of cosmologies, including those of Buddhism and Hinduism.

Karma is a central part of Buddhist teachings. In Buddha's teaching, karma is a direct intentional^[16] result of a person's word, thought and/or action in life. In pre-Buddhist Vedic culture, karma has to do with whether or not the ritualistic actions are correctly performed. Little emphasis is placed on moral conduct in the early Vedic conception.{{POV statement|date=July 2014}} In Buddhism, by contrast, a person's words, thoughts and/or actions form the basis for good and bad karma: sila (moral conduct) goes hand in hand with the development of meditation and wisdom. Buddhist teachings carry a markedly different meaning from pre-Buddhist conceptions of karma.^[17]

Dharma

Dharma (Sanskrit, Devanagari: धर्म or Pāli Dhamma, Devanagari: धम्म) means Natural Law, Reality or Duty, and with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. A Hindu appellation for Hinduism itself is Sanātana Dharma, which translates as "the eternal dharma." Similarly, Buddhadharma is an appellation for Buddhism. The general concept of dharma forms a basis for philosophies, beliefs and practices originating in India. The four main ones are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism (Jaina Dharma), and Sikhism (Sikha Dharma), all of whom retain the centrality of dharma in their teachings. In these traditions, beings that live in harmony with dharma proceed more quickly toward, according to the tradition, Dharma Yukam, Moksha, or Nirvana (personal liberation). Dharma can refer generally to religious duty, and also mean social order, right conduct, or simply virtue.

Buddha

The term "Buddha" too has appeared in Hindu scriptures before the birth of Gautama Buddha. In the Vayu Purana, sage Daksha calls Lord Shiva as Buddha.^[18]

Similar symbolism

Similar practices

Mantra

A mantra (मन्त्र) is a religious syllable or poem, typically from the Sanskrit language. Their use varies according to the school and philosophy associated with the mantra. They are primarily used as spiritual conduits, words or vibrations that instill one-pointed concentration in the devotee. Other purposes have included religious ceremonies to accumulate wealth, avoid danger, or eliminate enemies. Mantras existed in the historical Vedic religion, Zoroastrianism^[20] and the Shramanic traditions, and thus they remain important in Buddhism and Jainism as well as other faiths of Indian origin such as Sikhism.

Yoga

The practice of Yoga is intimately connected to the religious beliefs and practices of both Hinduism and Buddhism.^[21] However, there are distinct variations in the usage of yoga terminology in the two religions.

In Hinduism, the term "Yoga" commonly refers to the eight limbs of yoga as defined in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, written some time after 100 BCE, and means "yoke", with the idea that one's individual atman, or soul, would yoke or bind with the monistic entity that underlies everything (brahman). Yoga in Hinduism also known as being 'complex', based on yoking (integrating). Yoga defines a specific process: it has an emphasis on knowledge and practice, as well as being known to be 'mature' and difficult.^[22] The most basic meaning of this Sanskrit term is with technique. The technique of the different forms of yoga is what makes the practice meaningful. Yoga is not an easy or simple practice, viyoga is what is described as simple. Yoga is difficult in the fact of displaying the faith and meaning of Hinduism. Many Hindus tend to pick and choose between the five forms of yoga because of the way they live their life and how they want to practice it in the form they are most connected to.^[23]

In the Vajrayana Buddhism of Tibet, however, the term "Yoga" is simply used to refer to any type of spiritual practice; from the various types of tantra (like Kriyayoga or Charyayoga) to 'Deity yoga' and 'guru yoga'. In the early translation phase of the Sutrayana and Tantrayana from India, China and other regions to Tibet, along with the practice lineages of sadhana, codified in the Nyingmapa canon, the most subtle 'conveyance' (Sanskrit: yana) is Adi Yoga (Sanskrit). A contemporary scholar with a focus on Tibetan Buddhism, Robert Thurman writes that Patanjali was influenced by the success of the Buddhist monastic system to formulate his own matrix for the version of thought he considered orthodox.^[24]

Meditation

There is a range of common terminology and common descriptions of the meditative states that are seen as the foundation of meditation practice in both Hindu Yoga and Buddhism. Many scholars have noted that the concepts of dhyana and samādhi - technical terms describing stages of meditative absorption – are common to meditative practices in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Most notable in this context is the relationship between the system of four Buddhist dhyana states (Pali: jhana) and the samprajnata samadhi states of Classical Yoga.^[25] Also, many (Tibetan) Vajrayana practices of the generation stage and completion stage work with the chakras, inner energy channels (nadis) and kundalini, called tummo in Tibetan.

Differences

Despite the similarities in terminology there exist differences between the two religions. There is no evidence to show that Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste.^[26]

God

Gautama Buddha was very ambiguous about the existence of a Creator Deity Brahman and Eternal Self Atman and rejected them both. Various sources from the Pali Cannon and others suggest that the Buddha taught that belief in a Creator deity was not essential to attaining liberation from suffering, and perhaps chose to ignore theological questions because they were "fascinating to discuss," and frequently brought about more conflict and anger than peace. The Buddha did not deny the existence of the popular gods of the Vedic pantheon, but rather argued that these devas, who may be in a more exalted state than humans, are still nevertheless trapped in the same samsaric cycle of suffering as other beings and are not necessarily worthy of veneration and worship. The focus of the Noble Eightfold Path, while inheriting many practices and ideologies from the previous Hindu yogic tradition, deviates from the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita and earlier works of the Dharmic Religions in that liberation (Nirvana or Moksha) is not attained via unity with Brahman (the Godhead), Self-realization or worship. Rather, the Buddha's teaching centers around what Eknath Easwaran described as a "psychology of desire," that is attaining liberation from suffering by extermination of self-will, selfish desire and passions. This is not to say that such teachings are absent from the previous Hindu tradition, rather they are singled out and separated from Vedic Theology.

According to Buddhologist Richard Hayes, the early Buddhist Nikaya literature treats the question of the existence of a creator god "primarily from either an epistemological point of view or a moral point of view". In these texts the Buddha is portrayed not as a creator-denying atheist who claims to be able to prove such a God's nonexistence, but rather his focus is other teachers' claims that their teachings lead to the highest good.^[27]

Citing the Devadaha Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 101), Hayes states, "while the reader is left to conclude that it is attachment rather than God, actions in past lives, fate, type of birth or efforts in this life that is responsible for our experiences of sorrow, no systematic argument is given in an attempt to disprove the existence of God."^[28]

The Buddha (as portrayed in the Pali scriptures, the agamas) set an important trend in nontheism in Buddhism by establishing a somewhat non-theistic view on the notion of an omnipotent God, generally ignoring the issue as being irrelevant to his teachings.^[29] Nevertheless, in many passages in the Tripitaka gods (devas in Sanskrit) are mentioned and specific examples are given of individuals who were reborn as a god, or gods who were reborn as humans. Buddhist cosmology recognizes various levels and types of gods, but none of these gods is considered the creator of the world or of the human race.^[29]

Scholar-monk Walpola Rahula writes that man depends on God "for his own protection, safety, and security, just as a child depends on his parent." He describes this as a product of "ignorance, weakness, fear, and desire," and writes that this "deeply and fanatically held belief" for man's consolation is "false and empty" from the perspective of Buddhism. He writes that man does not wish to hear or understand teachings against this belief, and that the Buddha described his teachings as "against the current" for this reason.^[31] He also wrote that for self-protection man created God and for self-preservation man created "soul".^[32]

In later Mahayana literature, however, the idea of an eternal, all-pervading, all-knowing, immaculate, uncreated and deathless Ground of Being (the dharmadhatu, inherently linked to the sattvadhatu, the realm of beings), which is the Awakened Mind (bodhicitta) or Dharmakaya ("body of Truth") of the Buddha himself, is attributed to the Buddha in a number of Mahayana sutras, and is found in various tantras as well. In some Mahayana texts, such a principle is occasionally presented as manifesting in a more personalised form as a primordial buddha, such as Samantabhadra, Vajradhara, Vairochana, Amitabha and Adi-Buddha, among others.

Rites and rituals

In later tradition such as Mahayana Buddhism in Japan, the Shingon Fire Ritual (Homa /Yagna) and Urabon (Sanskrit: Ullambana) derives from Hindu traditions.^[33] Similar rituals are common in Tibetan Buddhism. Both Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism share common rites, such as the purification rite of Homa (Havan, Yagna in Sanskrit), prayers for the ancestors and deceased (Ullambana in Sanskrit, Urabon in Japanese).

Caste

The Buddha repudiated the caste distinctions of the Brahmanical religion,^[34] by offering ordination to all regardless of caste.^[35]

While the caste system constitutes an assumed background to the stories told in Buddhist scriptures, the sutras do not attempt to justify or explain the system.^[36] In Aggañña Sutta, Buddha elaborates that if any of the caste does the following deeds: killing, taking anything which is not given, take part in sexual misconduct, lying, slandering, speaking rough words or nonsense, greedy, cruel, and practice wrong beliefs; people would still see that they do negative deeds and therefore are not worthy or deserving respect. They will even get into trouble from their own deeds, whatever their caste (Brahmin, Khattiya, Vessa, and Sudda) might be.^[37]

Cosmology and worldview

In Buddhist cosmology, there are 31 planes of existence within samsara.^[38] Beings in these realms are subject to rebirth after some period of time, except for realms of the Non-Returners. Therefore, most of these places are not the goal of the holy life in the Buddha's dispensation. Buddhas are beyond all these 31 planes of existence after parinibbana. Hindu texts mostly mentions the devas in Kamma Loka. Only the Hindu god Brahma can be found in the Rupa loka. There are many realms above Brahma realm that are accessible through meditation. Those in Brahma realm are also subject to rebirth according to the Buddha.

Practices

To have an idea of the differences between Buddhism and pre-existing beliefs and practices during this time, we can look into the Samaññaphala Sutta in the Digha Nikaya of the Pali Canon. In this sutra, a king of Magadha listed the teachings from many prominent and famous spiritual teachers around during that time. He also asked the Buddha about his teaching when visiting him. The Buddha told the king about the practices of his spiritual path. The list of various practices he taught disciples as well as practices he doesn't encourage are listed. The text, rather than stating what the new faith was, emphasized what the new faith was not. Contemporaneous religious traditions were caricatured and then negated. Though critical of prevailing religious practices and social institutions on philosophical grounds, early Buddhist texts exhibit a reactionary anxiety at having to compete in religiously plural societies. Below are a few examples found in the sutra:

Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to scents, cosmetics, and means of beautification such as these — rubbing powders into the body, massaging with oils, bathing in perfumed water, kneading the limbs, using mirrors, ointments, garlands, scents, ... bracelets, head-bands, decorated walking sticks... fancy sunshades, decorated sandals, turbans, gems, yak-tail whisks, long-fringed white robes — he abstains from ... means of beautification such as these.

Whereas some priests and contemplatives... are addicted to talking about lowly topics such as these — talking about kings, robbers, ministers of state; armies, alarms, and battles; food and drink; clothing, furniture, garlands, and scents; relatives; vehicles; villages, towns, cities, the countryside; women and heroes; the gossip of the street and the well; tales of the dead; tales of diversity [philosophical discussions of the past and future], the creation of the world and of the sea, and talk of whether things exist or not — he abstains from talking about lowly topics such as

Whereas some priests and contemplatives...are addicted to running messages and errands for people such as these — kings, ministers of state, noble warriors, priests, householders, or youths [who say], 'Go here, go there, take this there, fetch that here' — he abstains from running messages and errands for people such as these.

Whereas some priests and contemplatives...engage in scheming, persuading, hinting, belittling, and pursuing gain with gain, he abstains from forms of scheming and persuading [improper ways of trying to gain material support from donors] such as these.

"Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: reading marks on the limbs [e.g., palmistry]; reading omens and signs; interpreting celestial events [falling stars, comets]; interpreting dreams; reading marks on the body [e.g., phrenology]; reading marks on cloth gnawed by mice; offering fire oblations, oblations from a ladle, oblations of husks, rice powder, rice grains, ghee, and oil; offering oblations from the mouth; offering blood-sacrifices; making predictions based on the fingertips; geomancy; laying demons in a cemetery; placing spells on spirits; reciting house-protection charms; snake charming, poison-lore, scorpion-lore, rat-lore, bird-lore, crow-lore; fortune-telling based on visions; giving protective charms; interpreting the calls of birds and animals — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: determining lucky and unlucky gems, garments, staffs, swords, spears, arrows, bows, and other weapons; women, boys, girls, male slaves, female slaves; elephants, horses, buffaloes, bulls, cows, goats, rams, fowl, quails, lizards, long-eared rodents, tortoises, and other animals — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

Whereas some priests and contemplatives... maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as forecasting: the rulers will march forth; the rulers will march forth and return; our rulers will attack, and their rulers will retreat; their rulers will attack, and our rulers will retreat; there will be triumph for our rulers and defeat for their rulers; there will be triumph for their rulers and defeat for our rulers; thus there will be triumph, thus there will be defeat — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as forecasting: there will be a lunar eclipse; there will be a solar eclipse; there will be an occultation of an asterism; the sun and moon will go their normal courses; the sun and moon will go astray; the asterisms will go their normal courses; the asterisms will go astray; there will be a meteor shower; there will be a darkening of the sky; there will be an earthquake; there will be thunder coming from a clear sky; there will be a rising, a setting, a darkening, a brightening of the sun, moon, and asterisms; such will be the result of the lunar eclipse... the rising, setting, darkening, brightening of the sun, moon, and asterisms — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as forecasting: there will be abundant rain; there will be a drought; there will be plenty; there will be famine; there will be rest and security; there will be danger; there will be disease; there will be freedom from disease; or they earn their living by counting, accounting, calculation, composing poetry, or teaching hedonistic arts and doctrines — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: calculating auspicious dates for marriages, betrothals, divorces; for collecting debts or making investments and loans; for being attractive or unattractive; curing women who have undergone miscarriages or abortions; reciting spells to bind a man's tongue, to paralyze his jaws, to make him lose control over his hands, or to bring on deafness; getting oracular answers to questions addressed to a mirror, to a young girl, or to a spirit medium; worshipping the sun, worshipping the Great Brahma, bringing forth flames from the mouth, invoking the goddess of luck — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.

Whereas some priests and contemplatives...maintain themselves by wrong livelihood, by such lowly arts as: promising gifts to devas in return for favors; fulfilling such promises; demonology; teaching house-protection spells; inducing virility and impotence; consecrating sites for construction; giving ceremonial mouthwashes and ceremonial bathing; offering sacrificial fires; administering emetics, purges, purges from above, purges from below, head-purges; administering ear-oil, eye-drops, treatments through the nose, ointments, and counter-ointments; practicing eye-surgery (or: extractive surgery), general surgery, pediatrics; administering root-medicines binding medicinal herbs — he abstains from wrong livelihood, from lowly arts such as these.^[39]}}

Meditation

According to the [https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.036.than.html Maha-Saccaka Sutta], the Buddha recalled a meditative state he entered by chance as a child and abandoned the ascetic practices he has been doing:

According to the Upakkilesa Sutta, after figuring out the cause of the various obstacles and overcoming them, the Buddha was able to penetrate the sign and enters 1st- 4th Jhana.

Then consider the following: "The question arose in me and because of doubt my concentration fell, when my concentration fell, the light disappeared and the vision of forms. I act so that the question does not arise in me again.”

I remained diligent, ardent, perceived both the light and the vision of forms. Shortly after the vision of light and shapes disappear. I thought, "What is the cause and condition in which light and vision of the forms disappear?”

Then consider the following: “Inattention arose in me because of inattention and my concentration has decreased, when my concentration fell, the light disappeared and the vision of forms. I must act in such a way that neither doubt nor disregard arise in me again.”}}

In the same way as above, the Buddha encountered many more obstacles that caused the light to disappear and found his way out of them. These include sloth and torpor, fear, elation, inertia, excessive energy, energy deficient, desire, perception of diversity, and excessive meditation on the ways. Finally, he was able to penetrate the light and entered jhana.

The following descriptions in the Upakkilesa Sutta further show how he find his way into the first four Jhanas, which he later considered samma samadhi.

When Anuruddha, I realized that doubt is an imperfection of the mind, I dropped out of doubt, an imperfection of the mind. When I realized that inattention ... sloth and torpor ... fear ... elation ... inertia ... excessive energy ... deficient energy... desire ... perception of diversity ... excessive meditation on the ways, I abandoned excessive meditation on the ways, an imperfection of the mind, so I thought, ‘I abandoned these imperfections of the mind. ‘ Now the concentration will develop in three ways. ..And so, Anuruddha, develop concentration with directed thought and sustained thought; developed concentration without directed thought, but only with the sustained thought; developed concentration without directed thought and without thought sustained, developed with the concentration ecstasy; developed concentration without ecstasy; develop concentration accompanied by happiness, developing concentration accompanied by equanimity...When Anuruddha, I developed concentration with directed thought and sustained thought to the development ... when the concentration accompanied by fairness, knowledge and vision arose in me: ‘My release is unshakable, this is my last birth, now there are no more likely to be any condition.|^[41]}}

According to the early scriptures, the Buddha learned the two formless attainments from two teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta respectively, prior to his enlightenment.^[40] It is most likely that they belonged to the Brahmanical tradition.^[41] However, he realized that neither "Dimension of Nothingness" nor "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception" lead to Nirvana and left. The Buddha said in the Ariyapariyesana Sutta:

The Buddha himself discovered an attainment beyond the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, the "cessation of feelings and perceptions". This is sometimes called the "ninth jhāna" in commentarial and scholarly literature.^[40]^[43]

Although the "Dimension of Nothingness" and the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception" are included in the list of nine Jhanas taught by the Buddha, they are not included in the Noble Eightfold Path. Noble Path number eight is "Samma Samadhi" (Right Concentration), and only the first four Jhanas are considered "Right Concentration". If he takes a disciple through all the Jhanas, the emphasis is on the "Cessation of Feelings and Perceptions" rather than stopping short at the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception".

In the Magga-vibhanga Sutta, the Buddha defines Right Concentration that belongs to the concentration (samadhi) division of the path as the first four Jhanas:

The Buddha did not reject the formless attainments in and of themselves, but instead the doctrines of his teachers as a whole, as they did not lead to nibbana. He then underwent harsh ascetic practices that he eventually also became disillusioned with. He subsequently remembered entering jhāna as a child, and realized that, "That indeed is the path to enlightenment."

In the suttas, the immaterial attainments are never referred to as jhānas. The immaterial attainments have more to do with expanding, while the Jhanas (1-4) focus on concentration. A common translation for the term "samadhi" is concentration. Rhys Davids and Maurice Walshe agreed that the term ” samadhi” is not found in any pre-buddhist text. Hindu texts later used that term to indicate the state of enlightenment. This is not in conformity with Buddhist usage. In The Long Discourse of the Buddha: A Translation of the Digha Nikaya (pg. 1700) Maurice Walshe wrote,

Another new teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must be combined with a liberating cognition.^[47]

Religious knowledge or "vision" was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside the Buddhist fold. According to the Samaññaphala Sutta this sort of vision arose for the Buddhist adept as a result of the perfection of 'meditation' (Sanskrit: dhyāna) coupled with the perfection of 'ethics' (Sanskrit: śīla). Some of the Buddha's meditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day, but the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment of "religious insight" (Sanskrit: prajñā) was original.^[48]

The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques.^[49] They describe meditative practices and states that existed before the Buddha, as well as those first developed within Buddhism.^[50] Two Upanishads written after the rise of Buddhism do contain full-fledged descriptions of yoga as a means to liberation.^[51]

While there is no convincing evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic or Shramanic tradition, based on strong parallels between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist texts.^[52] He mentions less likely possibilities as well.^[53] Having argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as the late Rg Vedic period.^[52]

Vedas

The Buddhist text Mahamayuri Tantra, written during 1-3rd century CE, mentions deities thrughout Jambudvipa (modern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka, and invokes them for the protection of the Buddhadharma. It also mentions a large number of Vedic rishis.^[54]

The Buddha is recorded in the Canki Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 95) as saying to a group of Brahmins:

In Hinduism, philosophies are classified either as Astika or Nastika, that is, philosophies that either affirm or reject the authorities of the Vedas. According to this tradition, Buddhism is a Nastika school since it rejects the authority of the Vedas.^[56] Buddhists on the whole called those who did not believe in Buddhism the "outer path-farers" (tiirthika).^[57]

Conversion

Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of religious conversion, the issue of whether Hindus proselytize is open to interpretations.^[58] Those who view Hinduism as an ethnicity more than as a religion tend to believe that to be a Hindu, one must be born a Hindu. However, those who see Hinduism primarily as a philosophy, a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life and by considering oneself a Hindu.^[58] The Supreme Court of India has taken the latter view, holding that the question of whether a person is a Hindu should be determined by the person's belief system, not by their ethnic or racial heritage.^[59]

Buddhism spread throughout Asia via proselytism and conversion.^[60] Buddhist scriptures depict such conversions in the form of lay followers declaring their support for the Buddha and his teachings, or via ordination as a Buddhist monk. Buddhist identity has been broadly defined as one who "takes Refuge" in the Three Jewels: Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, echoing a formula seen in Buddhist texts. In some communities, formal conversion rituals are observed. No specific ethnicity has typically been associated with Buddhism, and as it spread beyond its origin in India immigrant monastics were replaced with newly ordained members of the local ethnic or tribal group.^[61]

Soteriology

Upanishadic soteriology is focused on the static Self, while the Buddha's is focused on dynamic agency. In the former paradigm, change and movement are an illusion; to realize the Self as the only reality is to realize something that has always been the case. In the Buddha's system by contrast, one has to make things happen.^[62]

The fire metaphor used in the Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta (which is also used elsewhere) is a radical way of making the point that the liberated sage is beyond phenomenal experience. It also makes the additional point that this indefinable, transcendent state is the sage's state even during life. This idea goes against the early Brahminic notion of liberation at death.^[63]

Liberation for the Brahminic yogin was thought to be the permanent realization at death of a nondual meditative state anticipated in life. In fact, old Brahminic metaphors for the liberation at death of the yogic adept ("becoming cool", "going out") were given a new meaning by the Buddha; their point of reference became the sage who is liberated in life.^[64] The Buddha taught that these meditative states alone do not offer a decisive and permanent end to suffering either during life or after death.^[65]

He stated that achieving a formless attainment with no further practice would only lead to temporary rebirth in a formless realm after death.^[66] Moreover, he gave a pragmatic refutation of early Brahminical theories according to which the meditator, the meditative state, and the proposed uncaused, unborn, unanalyzable Self, are identical.^[67] These theories are undergirded by the Upanishadic correspondence between macrocosm and microcosm, from which perspective it is not surprising that meditative states of consciousness were thought to be identical to the subtle strata of the cosmos.^[68] The Buddha, in contrast, argued that states of consciousness come about caused and conditioned by the yogi's training and techniques, and therefore no state of consciousness could be this eternal Self.^[67]

Nonduality

Both the Buddha's conception of the liberated person and the goal of early Brahminic yoga can be characterized as nondual, but in different ways. The nondual goal in early Brahminism was conceived in ontological terms; the goal was that into which one merges after death. According to Wynne, liberation for the Buddha "... is nondual in another, more radical, sense. This is made clear in the dialogue with Upasiva, where the liberated sage is defined as someone who has passed beyond conceptual dualities. Concepts that might have some meaning in ordinary discourse, such as consciousness or the lack of it, existence and non-existence, etc., do not apply to the sage. For the Buddha, propositions are not applicable to the liberated person, because language and concepts (Sn 1076: vaadapathaa, dhammaa), as well as any sort of intellectual reckoning (sankhaa) do not apply to the liberated sage.^[69]

Nirvana

The concept of Nirvana has been also found among other religions such as Hinduism, Jainism,^[73] and Sikhism.^[74]

Early Buddhism and early Vedanta

The Buddhist texts do describe wandering, mendicant Brahmins who appear to have valued the early Upanishads' promotion of this lifestyle as opposed to living the life of the householder and accruing wealth from nobles in exchange for performing Vedic sacrifices.^[76] Furthermore, the early Buddhist texts mention ideas similar to those expounded in the early Upanishads, before controverting them.^[77]

Brahman

The old Upanishads largely consider Brahman (masculine gender, Brahmā in the nominative case, henceforth "Brahmā") to be a personal god, and Brahman (neuter gender, Brahma in the nominative case, henceforth "Brahman") to be the impersonal world principle.^[78] They do not strictly distinguish between the two, however.^[79] The old Upanishads ascribe these characteristics to Brahmā: first, he has light and luster as his marks; second, he is invisible; third, he is unknowable, and it is impossible to know his nature; fourth, he is omniscient. The old Upanishads ascribe these characteristics to Brahman as well.^[78]

In the Buddhist texts, there are many Brahmās. There they form a class of superhuman beings, and rebirth into the realm of Brahmās is possible by pursuing Buddhist practices.^[80]

In the Pāli scriptures, the neuter Brahman does not appear (though the word brahma is standardly used in compound words to mean "best", or "supreme"^[81]^[82]), however ideas are mentioned as held by various Brahmins in connection with Brahmā that match exactly with the concept of Brahman in the Upanishads. Brahmins who appear in the Tevijja-suttanta of the Digha Nikaya regard "union with Brahmā" as liberation, and earnestly seek it. In that text, Brahmins of the time are reported to assert: "Truly every Brahmin versed in the three Vedas has said thus: 'We shall expound the path for the sake of union with that which we do not know and do not see. This is the correct path. This path is the truth, and leads to liberation. If one practices it, he shall be able to enter into association with Brahmā." The early Upanishads frequently expound "association with Brahmā", and "that which we do not know and do not see" matches exactly with the early Upanishadic Brahman.^[83]

In the earliest Upanishad, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Absolute, which came to be referred to as Brahman, is referred to as "the imperishable".^[84] The Pāli scriptures present a "pernicious view" that is set up as an absolute principle corresponding to Brahman: "O Bhikkhus! At that time Baka, the Brahmā, produced the following pernicious view: 'It is permanent. It is eternal. It is always existent. It is independent existence. It has the dharma of non-perishing. Truly it is not born, does not become old, does not die, does not disappear, and is not born again. Furthermore, no liberation superior to it exists elsewhere." The principle expounded here corresponds to the concept of Brahman laid out in the Upanishads. According to this text the Buddha criticized this notion: "Truly the Baka Brahmā is covered with unwisdom."^[85]

Ātman

Ātman is a Sanskrit word that means 'self'. A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of a permanent, self-existent soul (Ātman) in favour of anicca or impermanence.

In Hindu philosophy, especially in the Vedanta school of Hinduism, Ātman is the first principle,^[90] the true self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the essence of an individual. Yajnavalkya (c. 9th century BCE), in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, uses the word to indicate that in which everything exists, which is of the highest value, which permeates everything, which is the essence of all, bliss and beyond description.^[91] While, older Upanishads such as the Brihadaranyaka, mention several times that the Self is described as Neti neti or not this – not this,^[92] Upanishads post Buddhism, like the Maitri Upanishad, define Ātman as only the defiled individual self, rather than the universal self.^[93] Taittiriya Upanishad defines Ātman or the Self as consisting of five sheaths (kosha): the bodily self consisting of the essence of food (annamaya kosha), the vital breath (pranamaya kosha), the mind or will (manomaya kosha), the intellect or capacity to know (vijnanamaya kosha) and bliss (anandamaya kosha).^[94] Knowledge or realization of the Ātman is seen as essential to attain salvation (liberation):

Schools of Indian philosophy, such as Advaita (non-dualism) see Ātman within each living entity as being fully identical with Brahman – the Principle, whereas other schools such as Dvaita (dualism) differentiate between the individual atma in living beings, and the Supreme atma (Paramatma) as being at least partially separate beings.^[96] Unlike Advaita, Samkhya holds blissfullness of Ātman as merely figurative. However, both Samkhya and Advaita consider the ego (asmita, ahamkara) rather than the Ātman to be the cause of pleasure and pain.^[97] Later Advaitic text Pañcadaśī classifies the degrees of Ātman under three headings: Gauna or secondary (anything other than the personality that an individual identifies with), Mithya or false (bodily personality) and Mukhya or primary (the real Self).^[98]

The concept of Ātman was rejected by the Buddha. Terms like anatman (not-self) and shunyata (voidness) are at the core of all Buddhist traditions. The permanent transcendence of the belief in the separate existence of the self is integral to the enlightenment of an Arhat. The Buddha criticized conceiving theories even of a unitary soul or identity immanent in all things as unskillful.^[99] In fact, according to the Buddha's statement in Khandha Samyutta 47, all thoughts about self are necessarily, whether the thinker is aware of it or not, thoughts about the five aggregates or one of them.^[100]

Despite the rejection of Ātman by Buddhists there were similarities between certain concepts in Buddhism and Ātman. The Upanishadic "Self" shares certain characteristics with nibbana; both are permanent, beyond suffering, and unconditioned.^[93] Buddhist mysticism is also of a different sort from that found in systems revolving around the concept of a "God" or "Self":

However, the Buddha shunned any attempt to see the spiritual goal in terms of "Self" because in his framework, the craving for a permanent self is the very thing that keeps a person in the round of uncontrollable rebirth, preventing him or her from attaining nibbana.^[93] At the time of the Buddha some philosophers and meditators posited a root: an abstract principle all things emanated from and that was immanent in all things. When asked about this, instead of following this pattern of thinking, the Buddha attacks it at its very root: the notion of a principle in the abstract, superimposed on experience. In contrast, a person in training should look for a different kind of "root" — the root of dukkha experienced in the present. According to one Buddhist scholar, theories of this sort have most often originated among meditators who label a particular meditative experience as the ultimate goal, and identify with it in a subtle way.^[102]

Adi Shankara in his works refuted the Buddhist arguments against Ātman. He suggested that a self-evident conscious agent would avoid infinite regress, since there would be no necessity to posit another agent who would know this. He further argued that a cognizer beyond cognition could be easily demonstrated from the diversity in self existence of the witness and the notion.^[103] Furthermore, Shankara thought that no doubts could be raised about the Self, for the act of doubting implies at the very least the existence of the doubter. Vidyaranya, another Advaita Vedantic philosopher, expresses this argument as:

Cosmic Self declared non-existent

The Buddha denies the existence of the cosmic Self, as conceived in the Upanishadic tradition, in the [https://notesfrommylibrary.com/2011/04/15/denial-of-the-atman-%E2%80%93-the-alagaddupama-sutta/ Alagaddupama Sutta] (M I 135-136). Possibly the most famous Upanishadic dictum is tat tvam asi, "thou art that." Transposed into first person, the Pali version is eso ‘ham asmi, "I am this." This is said in several suttas to be false. The full statement declared to be incorrect is "This is mine, I am this, this is my self/essence." This is often rejected as a wrong view.^[105] The Alagaduppama Sutta rejects this and other obvious echoes of surviving Upanishadic statements as well (these are not mentioned as such in the commentaries, and seem not to have been noticed until modern times). Moreover, the passage denies that one’s self is the same as the world and that one will become the world self at death.^[106] The Buddha tells the monks that people worry about something that is non-existent externally ([https://notesfrommylibrary.com/2011/04/15/denial-of-the-atman-%E2%80%93-the-alagaddupama-sutta/ bahiddhaa asati)] and non-existent internally (ajjhattam asati); he is referring respectively to the soul/essence of the world and of the individual.^[106] A similar rejection of "internal" Self and "external" Self occurs at AN II 212. Both are referring to the Upanishads.^[106] The most basic presupposition of early Brahminic cosmology is the identification of man and the cosmos (instances of this occur at TU II.1 and Mbh XII.195), and liberation for the yogin was thought to only occur at death, with the adept's union with brahman (as at Mbh XII.192.22).^[107] The Buddha's rejection of these theories is therefore one instance of the Buddha's attack on the whole enterprise of Upanishadic ontology.^[108]^[109]

Brahmin

The Buddha redefined the word "brahmin" so as to become a synonym for arahant, replacing a distinction based on birth with one based on spiritual attainment.^[110]^[111] The early Buddhist scriptures furthermore defined purity as determined by one's state of mind, and refer to anyone who behaves unethically, of whatever caste, as "rotting within", or "a rubbish heap of impurity".^[112]

The Buddha explains his use of the word brahmin in many places. At Sutta Nipata 1.7 Vasala Sutta, verse 12, he states: "Not by birth is one an outcast; not by birth is one a brahmin. By deed one becomes an outcast, by deed one becomes a brahmin."^[113] An entire chapter of the Dhammapada is devoted to showing how a true brahmin in the Buddha's use of the word is one who is of totally pure mind, namely, an arahant.^[114] However, it is very noteworthy that the Bhagavad Gita also defines Brahmin, and other varnas, as qualities and resulting from actions, and does not mention birth as a factor in determining these. In that regard, the chapter on Brahmins in the Dhammapada may be regarded as being entirely in tune with the definition of a Brahmin in Chapter 18 of the Bhagavad Gita. Both say that a Brahmin is a person having certain qualities.

A defining of feature of the Buddha's teachings is self-sufficiency, so much so as to render the Brahminical priesthood entirely redundant.^[115]

Buddha in Hindu scriptures

In one Purana, the Buddha is described as an incarnation of Vishnu who incarnated in order to delude demons away from the Vedic dharma. The Bhavishya Purana posits:

Consequently, the word Buddha is mentioned in several of the Puranas that are believed to have been composed after his birth.^[117]^[118]

Buddha in Buddhist scriptures

According to the biography of the Buddha, before taking his last birth on Earth as Gautama, the Buddha was a Mahapurusha (great being) named Shvetaketu, dwelling in the Tushita Heaven (Home of the Contented Gods). After attaining enlightenment on Earth, there is to be no more rebirth for the Buddha. Before leaving the Tushita realm to take birth on earth, he designated Maitreya to take his place there. Maitreya will come to earth as the next Buddha, instead of him coming back again.

Krishna was a past life of Sariputra, a chief disciple of the Buddha.^[119] He has not attained enlightenment during that life as Krishna. Therefore, he came back to be reborn during the life of the Buddha and reached the first stage of Enlightenment after encountering an enlightened disciple of the Buddha. He reached full Arahantship or full Awakening/Enlightenment after becoming ordained in the Buddha's sangha.

Notable views

Neo-Vedanta

Steven Collins sees such Hindu claims regarding Buddhism as part of an effort – itself a reaction to Christian proselytizing efforts in India – to show that "all religions are one", and that Hinduism is uniquely valuable because it alone recognizes this fact.^[123]

Reformation

Some scholars have written that Buddhism should be regarded as "reformed Brahmanism",^[124] and many Hindus consider Buddhism a sect of Hinduism.{{Citation needed|reason=need to find sources yet|date=June 2009}}

Dalit-movement

B. R. Ambedkar, the founder of the Dalit Buddhist movement, declared that Buddhism offered an opportunity for low-caste and untouchable Hindus to achieve greater respect and dignity because of its non-caste doctrines. Among the 22 vows he prescribed to his followers is an injunction against having faith in Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh. He also regarded the belief that the Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu as "false propaganda".^[125]{{Better source|reason=|date=July 2017}}

Hindu-Buddhist temples

Many examples exist of temples dedicated to both faiths. These include the Kaiyuan Temple and Angkor Wat.

See also

References

1. ^Y. Masih in A Comparative Study of Religions (2000), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: Delhi, {{ISBN|81-208-0815-0}} Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."
2. ^Helmuth von Glasenapp, [https://web.archive.org/web/20130204142029/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/vonglasenapp/wheel002.html "Vedanta and Buddhism, A Comparative Study"] (1950) 1950 Proceedings of the Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur
3. ^{{Harv|Gombrich|1997|p=31}}
4. ^"We may distinguish among Upanishads in terms of relative age. First are early, pre-Buddhist Upanishads (Chandogya, Brahadanyaka, Aitreya, Taittiriya, Kauitaki, and somewhat later Kena and Isa)." Fahlbusch et al. (2008) The Encyclopedia of Christianity: Volume 5: Si-Z p. 645, Translated by Geoffrey William Bromiley, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing {{ISBN|0-8028-2417-X}}, 978-0-8028-2417-2
5. ^{{citation|last=Pratt|first=James Bissett|title=The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLXwU9e6D4sC&pg=PA90|year=1996|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1196-2|page=90}}
6. ^{{citation|last=Upadhyaya|first=Kashi Nath|title=Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgītā|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBbznHuPrTYC&pg=PA103|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0880-5|pages=103–104}}
7. ^Hajime Nakamura (1990) A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One. p.139, Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
8. ^K. N. Upadhaya (1968) "The Impact of Early Buddhism on Hindu Thought (with Special Reference to the Bhagavadgiitaa)", Philosophy East and West Vol.18 pp.163-173, University of Hawaii Press
9. ^January 2008, VOL. 213, #1
10. ^Hill, Christopher. South Asia: An Environmental History. ABC-CLIO 2008, page 35. "Through Kalidas' work we begin to see the ascension of Hinduism, taking the place of Buddhism as the dominant religion."
11. ^Morley, Grace. 2005. Indian Sculpture. Roli Books. pg. 28. "By the end of the Gupta period Buddhism was no longer dominant, even in the north, where it had prevailed for so long."
12. ^Inden, Ronald. "Ritual, Authority, And Cycle Time in Hindu Kingship." In JF Richards, ed., Kingship and Authority in South Asia. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998, p.67, 55"before the eighth century, the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies through which a king attained to imperial status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa....This pattern changed in the eighth century. The Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods (except under the Palas of eastern India, the Buddha's homeland)...Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship (puja). Now as one of the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship."
13. ^Holt, John. The Buddhist Visnu. Columbia University Press, 2004, p.12,15 "The replacement of the Buddha as the "cosmic person" within the mythic ideology of Indian kingship, as we shall see shortly, occurred at about the same time the Buddha was incorporated and subordinated within the Brahmanical cult of Visnu."
14. ^{{Harv|Gombrich|1997|pp=29–30}}
15. ^"The brahmin by caste alone, the teacher of the Veda, is (jokingly) etymologized as the 'non-meditator' (ajhāyaka). Brahmins who memorize the three Vedas (tevijja) really know nothing: it is the process of achieving Enlightenment—what the Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of that night—that constitutes the true 'three knowledges.' " R.F. Gombrich in Paul Williams, ed., "Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious studies." Taylor and Francis 2006, page 120.
16. ^Kamma A Study Guide by Thanissaro Bhikkhu http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/study/kamma.html
17. ^{{Harv|Gombrich|1997|p=37}}
18. ^"namah suddhaya buddhaya"; P. 67 Cultural History From The Vayu Purana By Devendrakumar Rajaram Patil, Rajaram D. K. Patil
19. ^Buddha image {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321133243/http://img.search.com/0/0f/300px-Buddha_image_-_stone_-_with_disciple.jpg |date=March 21, 2007 }}
20. ^http://tenets.parsizoroastrianism.com/IsthereanysenseinchantingAvestaprayers.pdf
21. ^The Yoga Tradition: its literature, philosophy and practice By Georg Feuerstein. {{ISBN|81-208-1923-3}}. p. 111
22. ^{{cite journal|last=Stratton Hawley|first=John|title=Yoga and Viyoga: Simple Religion in Hinduism|journal=The Harvard Theological Review|date=January 1981|volume=74|pages=1–20|doi=10.1017/s0017816000028492}}
23. ^{{cite journal|last=Stratton Hawley|first=John|title=Yoga and Viyoga: Simple Religion in Hinduism|journal=The Harvard Theological Review|date=January 1981|volume=74|series=no. 1|pages=1–20|doi=10.1017/s0017816000028492}}
24. ^Robert Thurman, "The Central Philosophy of Tibet. Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 34.
25. ^Samadhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga By Stuart Ray Sarbacker. {{ISBN|0-7914-6553-5}}. p. 77
26. ^Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, {{ISBN|81-208-0815-0}} Page 18.
27. ^Hayes, Richard P., "Principled Atheism in the Buddhist Scholastic Tradition", Journal of Indian Philosophy, 16:1 (1988:Mar) pgs 5-6, 8
28. ^Hayes, Richard P., "Principled Atheism in the Buddhist Scholastic Tradition", Journal of Indian Philosophy, 16:1 (1988:Mar) pgs 9-10
29. ^¹{{cite web|title=The Buddhist Attitude to God |work=Statement made to a Multi-religious Seminar |author=Dr V. A. Gunasekara |url=http://www.buddhistinformation.com/buddhist_attitude_to_god.htm |accessdate=2007-04-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408180218/http://www.buddhistinformation.com/buddhist_attitude_to_god.htm |archivedate=2007-04-08 |deadurl=yes |df= }}
30. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/3/verse/19|title=Chapter 3, Verse 19 – Bhagavad Gita, The Song of God – Swami Mukundananda|last=Mukundananda|first=Swami|access-date=2016-08-17}}
31. ^Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught, pp. 51–52.
32. ^What the Buddha Taught, pp. 51–52.
33. ^R.K. Payne: The Tantric Ritual of Japan. Feeding the Gods: the Shingon Fire Ritual., and Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu? 2001
34. ^K.N. Upadhaya, The Impact of Early Buddhism on Hindu Thought. Philosophy East and West Vol.18(1968) pp.163-173, accessed at http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew27039.htm.
35. ^Mrozik, Susanne. "Upali" in McMillian Encyclopedia of Buddhism, pg. 870. "All account emphasize that caste has no bearing on a person's status in the monastic community."
36. ^Cohen, Richard S. "India" in McMillian Encyclopedia of Buddhism, p. 358. "Though Buddhist texts take the existence of "caste" for granted, they attempt neither to justify the social system, nor to disseminate it."
37. ^{{cite book|title = The Long Discourses of the Buddha|first = Maurice|last = Walshe|page = 216|publisher = Wisdom Publications Inc|year = 2005}}
38. ^Page 14, The Emergence of Buddhism: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective, By Jacob N. Kinnard, Published by Fortress [https://books.google.com/books?id=xIzyZ7Nvs7cC&pg=PA14&dq=buddhist+cosmology+31+realms&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gDMJUIvZCfGviQe84unrCQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=buddhist%20cosmology%2031%20realms&f=false]
39. ^¹Walshe, Maurice (trans.) (1995). The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Digha Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|0-86171-103-3}}.
40. ^¹Steven Sutcliffe, Religion: Empirical Studies. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, page 135.
41. ^John J. Holder, Early Buddhist Discourses. Hackett Publishing Company, 2006, page xi.
42. ^¹²Nanamoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) (1995, ed. Bhikkhu Bodhi). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|0-86171-072-X}}.
43. ^Chandima Wijebandara, Early Buddhism, Its Religious and Intellectual Milieu. Postgraduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Kelaniya, 1993, page 22.
44. ^Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|0-86171-331-1}}.
45. ^Michael Carrithers, The Buddha. Taken from Founders of Faith, published by Oxford University Press, 1986, page 30.
46. ^Alexander Wynne, The origin of Buddhist meditation. Routledge, 2007, p. 72.
47. ^Alexander Wynne, The origin of Buddhist meditation. Routledge, 2007, p. 73.
48. ^Dharmacarini Manishini, Western Buddhist Review. Accessed at {{cite web|url=http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol4/kamma_in_context.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-08-08 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808043640/http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol4/kamma_in_context.html |archivedate=2013-08-08 |df= }}
49. ^Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 44.
50. ^Johannes Bronkhorst, The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India. Franz Steiner Verlag Weisbaden GmbH, pages 1-17.
51. ^Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC&pg=PA177&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0#PPA199,M1 page 199].
52. ^¹Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 51.
53. ^Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 56.
54. ^[https://mahamayurividyarajni.wordpress.com/2012/06/10/mahamayuri/ Translated into English by Cheng Yew Chung based on Amoghavajra’s Chinese Translation (Taisho Volume 19, Number 982) ]
55. ^This whole section is largely verbatim quotes from Rahula's What the Buddha Taught, pp. 9–10.
56. ^{{cite book | author=Broughton, Jeffrey L. | title=The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press | year=1999 | isbn=0-520-21972-4}} p. 2.
57. ^Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, p. 131.
58. ^¹"Does Hinduism Accept Newcomers?"
59. ^Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal (Supreme Court of India), available at {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061030015441/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/in-depth_issues/RKMission.html |date=October 30, 2006 }}
60. ^Dutt, Nalinaksha. Early History Of The Spread Of Buddhism and The Buddhist Schools. Cosmo Publications, 2005. Pp. 72-78. {{ISBN|81-307-0092-1}}.
61. ^Hunter, W. W. The Indian Empire: Its People, History, and Products. Routledge, 2000. P. 149. {{ISBN|0-415-24495-1}}.
62. ^Richard Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings. Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, p. 58.
63. ^Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 96.
64. ^Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 109.
65. ^Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, page 36. Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford University Press, 1986.
66. ^Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 21.
67. ^¹Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, pp. 41–42. Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford University Press, 1986.
68. ^Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 42.
69. ^Alexander Wynne 2007, page 109
70. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=HP9O6OM4iOgC&pg=PA9&dq=its+etymology+is+not+necessarily+conclusive+for+determining+its+exact+meaning&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwieiuO9yMrWAhWBLI8KHV4PAM8Q6AEIJzAA#v=onepage&q=its%20etymology%20is%20not%20necessarily%20conclusive%20for%20determining%20its%20exact%20meaning&f=false Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy], Edward Craig, 1. Origins and etymology of the word Nirvana, p. 9, Published by Taylor & Francis, 1998, {{ISBN|0-415-07310-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-07310-3}}
71. ^Paul Williams, Buddhism: The early Buddhist schools and doctrinal history ; Theravāda doctrine. Taylor & Francis, 2005, p. 147.
72. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=mxpFwcAplaAC&pg=PA11&dq=A+common+error+in+examining+the+concept+such+as+nirvana] " A common error in examining the concept such as nirvana is to focus too much on the exact denotation of the term at the expense of its wider associations and context, not taking into the account number of synonyms frequently used to describe it. A specific example might be that nirvana is 'amrta', or the deathlessness, but it is important that this refers to the nectar that confers immortality upon gods. In the Buddhist context it refers to a condition in which there is no death, though it is clearly intended to have the positive associations of Indian myth." Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward Craig, 6. Synonyms for Nirvana ,p. 11, Published by Taylor & Francis, 1998, {{ISBN|0-415-07310-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-07310-3}}
73. ^On World Religions: Diversity, Not Dissension, p. 78, Anindita N. Balslev, SAGE Publications
74. ^{{cite book|title=Sikhism And Indian Civilization By R.K. Pruthi|year=2004|pages=200|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=zYJpT_PfJcbtrQfm0tSOCA&id=KxndvJs3wUkC}}
75. ^Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, pp. 133–134.
76. ^Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, pp. 134–135.
77. ^Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, p. 135.
78. ^¹Hajime Nakamura (1989), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990 (Reprint), p. 136.
79. ^David Kalupahana (1975), Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, The University Press of Hawaii, p. 19.
80. ^Thanissaro Bhikkhu, . See note 2.
81. ^Steven Collins (2000), Aggañña sutta, Sahitya Akademi, p. 58.
82. ^Peter Harvey (1995), The Selfless Mind, Curzon Press, p. 234.
83. ^Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass, 1990, p. 137.
84. ^Karel Werner (1994), The Yogi and the Mystic: Studies in Indian and Comparative Mysticism, Routledge, p. 24.
85. ^Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One, Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass, 1990, pp. 137–138. "It has the dharma of non-perishing" is Nakamura's translation of "acavanadhammam".
86. ^David Kalupahana (1975), Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, The University Press of Hawaii, p. 185.
87. ^Randall Collins (2000), The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change, Harvard University Press, p. 202. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC&pg=PA177&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0#PPA202,M1]
88. ^A.K. Warder (1998), A Course in Indian Philosophy, Second edition published by Motilal Banarsidass, p. 81.
89. ^David Kalupahana (1977), Buddhist philosophy: A Historical Analysis, Published by University of Hawaii Press, pp. 23–24.
90. ^Deussen, Paul and Geden, A. S. The Philosophy of the Upanishads. Cosimo Classics (June 1, 2010). P. 86. {{ISBN|1616402407}}.
91. ^Raju, Poolla Tirupati. Structural Depths of Indian Thought. SUNY Series in Philosophy. P. 26. {{ISBN|0-88706-139-7}}.
92. ^Swami Prabhavananda, The Upanishads: Breath of the Eternal, {{cite web|url=http://www.atmajyoti.org/up_brihadaranyaka_upanishad_text.asp |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-07-01 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402225915/http://www.atmajyoti.org/up_brihadaranyaka_upanishad_text.asp |archivedate=2012-04-02 |df= }}
93. ^¹²Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press, 1995, page 34.
94. ^DasGupta, Surendranath. A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. P. 46. {{ISBN|9780521116299}}.
95. ^{{cite book|last=David Gordon White|year=1998|title=The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|page=18|url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/The-Alchemical-Body-Traditions-Medieval/dp/0226894991|isbn=978-0226894997|accessdate=June 15, 2015}} NOTE: Similar identification also made in the Hathayogapradipika (4.50)
96. ^Bhagavata Purana 3.28.41 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217121958/http://vedabase.net/sb/3/28/41/en |date=February 17, 2012 }}
97. ^Paranjpe, A. C. Self and Identity in Modern Psychology and Indian Thought. Springer; 1 edition (September 30, 1998). P. 263-264. {{ISBN|978-0-306-45844-6}}.
98. ^Krishnananda, (Swami). The Philosophy of the Panchadasi. The Divine Life Society. Rishikesh. P. 166-169.
99. ^Thanissaro Bhikkhu, The Not-Self Strategy. . For the sutta see .
100. ^Nanavira Thera, Nibbana and Anatta. . Early Writings -> Nibbana and Anatta -> Nibbana, Atta, and Anatta.
101. ^Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, p. 100.
102. ^Thanissaro Bhikkhu's commentary to the Mula Pariyaya Sutta, .
103. ^Darling, Gregory Joseph. An Evaluation of the Vedāntic Critique of Buddhism. Motilal Banarasidass Publishers. Delhi, 1987. P. 315-316. {{ISBN|978-81-208-0363-3}}.
104. ^Deutsch, Eliot. [https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Advaita Vedānta: A Philosophical Reconstruction]. East-West Center Press, 1969. P. 50. {{ISBN|0-8248-0271-3}}.
105. ^Richard Francis Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, page 38.
106. ^¹²Richard Francis Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, p. 39.
107. ^Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, pp. 50, 96.
108. ^Richard Francis Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings. Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, p. 40.
109. ^See also Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 116.
110. ^Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Handful of Leaves Vol 1, 2nd edition, page 391.
111. ^See for example Dhp XXVI, Brahmanavagga, or Majjhima Nikaya 3.24, or especially MN 98 for three of many examples.
112. ^Sue Hamilton, Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder. Routledge 2000, pp. 47, 49.
113. ^Translated by Piyadassi Thera: .
114. ^Dhammapada XXVI, translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu: .
115. ^Sue Hamilton, Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder. Routledge 2000, p. 49.
116. ^Wendy O'Flaherty, Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. University of California Press, 1976, p. 203.
117. ^Vinay Lal (2007), http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Religions/texts/Puranas.html
118. ^Bhag-P 1.3.24 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926235132/http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/24/en1 |date=2007-09-26 }} "Then, in the beginning of Kali-yuga, the Lord will appear as Lord Buddha, the son of Anjana, in the province of Gaya, just for the purpose of deluding those who are envious of the faithful theist."
119. ^GHATA-JĀTAKA (NO. 454)
120. ^Radhakrishnan: Indian Philosophy, vol.2, p. 469.
121. ^Carrithers, p. 38.
122. ^Sister Nivedita: The Master as I Saw Him. Koenraad Elst 2001: Who is a Hindu
123. ^Steven Collins, Selfless Persons. Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 9.
124. ^Christian Lindtner: "From Brahmanism to Buddhism", Asian Philosophy, 1999, John Woodroffe (Arthur Avalon): Shakti and Shakta, Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu (2001).
125. ^Ambedkarite website, http://www.jaibheem.com/22%20Vows.htm

Upanishads

Royal support

Similarities

Basic vocabulary

Karma

Dharma

Buddha

Similar symbolism

Similar practices

Mantra

Yoga

Meditation

Differences

God

Rites and rituals

Caste

Cosmology and worldview

Practices

Meditation

Vedas

Conversion

Soteriology

Nonduality

Nirvana

Early Buddhism and early Vedanta

Brahman

Ātman

Cosmic Self declared non-existent

Brahmin

Buddha in Hindu scriptures

Buddha in Buddhist scriptures

Notable views

Neo-Vedanta

Reformation

Dalit-movement

Hindu-Buddhist temples

See also

References

Sources

Further reading

External links