| 词条 | Brugmansia | ||
| 释义 |
|image = Brugmansia.jpg |image_alt = Brugmansia 'Feingold' |image_caption = Brugmansia 'Feingold' |display_parents = 2 |taxon = Brugmansia |authority = Pers. |synonyms = Methysticodendron R.E.Schult. Pseudodatura Zijp[1] |subdivision_ranks = Species |subdivision = See text }} Brugmansia is a genus of seven species of flowering plants in the family Solanaceae. They are woody trees or shrubs, with pendulous flowers, and have no spines on their fruit. Their large, fragrant flowers give them their common name of angel's trumpets, a name sometimes used for the closely related genus Datura. (Datura differ from Brugmansia in that they are herbaceous perennials, with erect or nodding, rather than pendulous, flowers - and usually spiny fruit). Brugmansia species are amongst the most toxic of ornamental plants, containing as they do tropane alkaloids of the type responsible also for the toxicity of the infamous deadly nightshade.[2][3] All seven species are known only in cultivation or as escapes from cultivation, and no wild plants have ever been confirmed. They are therefore listed as Extinct in the Wild by the IUCN Red List, although they are popular ornamental plants and still exist wild outside their native range as introduced species.[4]. It is suspected that their extinction in the wild is due to the extinction of some animal which previously dispersed the seeds.[5]DescriptionBrugmansia are large shrubs or small trees, with semi-woody, often many-branched trunks. They can reach heights of {{convert|3|–|11|m|abbr=on|0}}. The leaves are alternately arranged along the stems, generally large, {{convert|10|–|30|cm|abbr=on|0}} long and {{convert|4|–|18|cm|abbr=on|0}} across, with an entire or coarsely toothed margin, and are often covered with fine hairs. The name "angel's trumpet" refers to the large, pendulous, trumpet-shaped flowers, {{convert|14|–|50|cm|abbr=on|0}} long and {{convert|10|–|35|cm|abbr=on|0}} across at the opening. They come in shades of white, yellow, pink, orange, green, or red. Most have a strong, pleasing fragrance that is most noticeable in the evening. Flowers may be single, double, or more. Distribution and habitatBrugmansia are native to tropical regions of South America, along the Andes from Venezuela to northern Chile, and also in south-eastern Brazil.[4] They are grown as ornamental container plants worldwide, and have become naturalized in isolated tropical areas around the globe, including within North America, Africa, Australia, and Asia.[6][7][8][9]EcologyMost Brugmansia are fragrant in the evenings to attract pollinating moths.[10] One species lacking scent, the red-flowered Brugmansia sanguinea, is pollinated by long-billed hummingbirds.[4] Brugmansia have two main stages to their life cycle. In the initial vegetative stage the young seedling grows straight up on usually a single stalk, until it reaches its first main fork at {{convert|80|-|150|cm|ft|abbr=on}} high. It will not flower until after it has reached this fork, and then only on new growth above the fork. Cuttings taken from the lower vegetative region must also grow to a similar height before flowering, but cuttings from the upper flowering region will often flower at a very low height.[4]One interesting example of plant/animal interaction involves the butterfly Placidula euryanassa, which uses Brugmansia suaveolens as one of its main larval foods. It has been shown that these can sequester the plant's tropane alkaloids and store them through the pupal stage on to the adult butterfly, where they are then used as a defense mechanism, making themselves less palatable to vertebrate predators.[11] TaxonomyLinnaeus first classified these plants as part of Datura with his 1753 description of Datura arborea. Then in 1805, C. H. Persoon transferred them into a separate genus, Brugmansia, named for Dutch naturalist Sebald Justinus Brugmans.[4] For another 168 years, various authors placed them back and forth between the genera of Brugmansia and Datura, until in 1973, with his detailed comparison of morphological differences, T.E. Lockwood settled them as separate genera, where they have stayed unchallenged since.[12]Currently, there are 7 recognized species:[13]
These species are then divided into two natural, genetically isolated groups.[14] Brugmansia section Brugmansia (the warm-growing group) includes the species aurea, insignis, sauveolens, and versicolor. Brugmansia section Sphaerocarpium (the cold group) includes the species arborea, sanguinea, and vulcanicola.[13] Two of these species were challenged by Lockwood in his 1973 doctoral thesis.[15] First, Brugmansia vulcanicola was said to be a subspecies of B. sanguinea, but this was refuted by Lockwood's former mentor, R. E. Schultes in 1977.[16] Second, Lockwood proposed that the species B. insignis was instead a hybrid of the combination (B. suaveolens x B. versicolor) x B. suaveolens. This was later disproved by crossbreeding experiments done by the Preissels, published in 1997.[4] UsesBrugmansia are most often grown today as flowering ornamental plants. In modern medicine, important alkaloids such as scopolamine, hyoscyamine, and atropine, found in Brugmansia and other related members of Solanaceae, have proven medical value for their spasmolytic, anti-asthmatic, anticholinergic, narcotic and anesthetic properties, although many of these alkaloids, or their equivalents, are now artificially synthesized.[17] Brugmansia have also traditionally been used in many South American indigenous cultures in medical preparations and as an entheogen in religious or spiritual ceremonies.[18] Medicinally, they have mostly been used externally as part of a poultice, tincture, ointment, or where the leaves are directly applied transdermally to the skin. Traditional external uses have included the treating of aches and pains, dermatitis, orchitis, arthritis, rheumatism, headaches, infections, and as an anti-inflammatory. They have been used internally much more rarely due to the inherent dangers of ingestion. Internal uses, in highly diluted preparations, and often as a portion of a larger mix, have included treatments for stomach and muscle ailments, as a decongestant, to induce vomiting, to expel worms and parasites, and as a sedative.[19][20][21][22]Several South American cultures have used Brugmansia as a treatment for unruly children, that they might be admonished directly by their ancestors in the spirit world, and thereby become more compliant. Mixed with maize beer and tobacco leaves, it has been used to drug wives and slaves before they were buried alive with their dead lord.[19][23][24] ToxicityAll parts of Brugmansia are potentially poisonous, with the seeds and leaves being especially dangerous.[21][25] Brugmansia are rich in scopolamine (hyoscine), hyoscyamine, and several other tropane alkaloids.[26]Effects of ingestion can include paralysis of smooth muscles, confusion, tachycardia, dry mouth, diarrhea, migraine headaches, visual and auditory hallucinations, mydriasis, rapid onset cycloplegia, and death.[27][28][29] The hallucinogenic effects of Brugmansia were described in the journal Pathology as "terrifying rather than pleasurable".[30] The author Christina Pratt, in An Encyclopedia of Shamanism, says that "Brugmansia induces a powerful trance with violent and unpleasant effects, sickening after effects, and at times temporary insanity".[21] These hallucinations are often characterized by complete loss of awareness that one is hallucinating, disconnection from reality, and amnesia of the episode, such as one example reported in Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience of a young man who amputated his own penis and tongue after drinking only 1 cup of Brugmansia tea.[31] In 1994 in Florida, 112 people were admitted to hospitals from ingesting Brugmansia,[32] leading one municipality to prohibit the purchase, sale, or cultivation of Brugmansia plants.[4][33][34] The concentrations of alkaloids in all parts of the plant differ markedly. They even vary with the seasons and the level of hydration, so it is nearly impossible to determine a safe level of alkaloid exposure.[27] CultivationBrugmansia are easily grown in a moist, fertile, well-drained soil, in sun to part shade, in frost-free climates. They begin to flower in mid to late spring in warm climates and continue into the fall (autumn), often continuing as late as early winter in warm conditions. In cool winters, outdoor plants need protection from frost, but the roots are hardier, and may resprout in late spring. The species from the higher elevations, in B. section Sphaerocarpium, prefer moderate temperatures and cool nights, and may not flower if temperatures are very hot. Most Brugmansia may be propagated easily by rooting {{convert|10|-|20|cm|0|abbr=on}} cuttings taken from the end of a branch during the summer. Several hybrids and numerous cultivars have been developed for use as ornamental plants. B. × candida is a hybrid between B. aurea and B. versicolor; B. × flava is a hybrid between B. arborea and B. sanguinea; and B. × cubensis[14] is a hybrid between B. suaveolens, B. versicolor, and B. aurea. There are cultivars producing double flowers, and some with variegated leaves. The cultivar B. × candida 'Grand Marnier' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[35] References1. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?13739 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20001029083003/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?13739 | dead-url = yes | archive-date = 2000-10-29 | title = Genus: Brugmansia Pers. | work = Germplasm Resources Information Network | publisher = United States Department of Agriculture | date = 2009-09-01 | accessdate = 2010-09-25 }} 2. ^{{cite web|url=http://ucanr.edu/sites/poisonous_safe_plants/Toxic_Plants_by_Scientific_Name_685/|title=Toxic Plants (by scientific name)|first=University of California Agriculture and Natural|last=Resources|website=ucanr.edu}} 3. ^MAQBOOL, Farhana, SINGH, Seema, KALOO, Zahoor A., and JAN, Mahroofa, of University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India : Medicinal Importance of Genus Atropa Royle -A review : International Journal of Advanced Research (2014), Volume 2, Issue 2, 48-54. http://www.journalijar.com/uploads/637_IJAR-2611.pdf Retrieved 9.44 on 22/3/19. 4. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 {{cite book |author1=Preissel, U. |author2=Preissel, H. G. | title = Brugmansia and Datura: Angel's Trumpets and Thorn Apples | publisher = Firefly Books | year = 2002 | location = Buffalo, New York | pages = 106–129 | isbn = 1-55209-598-3 }} 5. ^IUCN Red List: search on Brugmansia and select any of the species. 6. ^{{ cite book | last = Newmark | first = W. D. | title = Conserving biodiversity in East African forests: A study of the Eastern Arc Mountains | year = 2002 | publisher = Springer | isbn = 978-3-540-42429-1 | page = 107 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WobSzDGhzToC&lpg=PA107&dq=brugmansia%20naturalized%20africa&pg=PA107#v=onepage&q&f=false | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140602033701/http://books.google.com/books?id=WobSzDGhzToC&lpg=PA107&dq=brugmansia%20naturalized%20africa&pg=PA107#v=onepage&q&f=false | archivedate = 2014-06-02 | df = }} 7. ^{{cite book | last = D'Arcy | first = W. G. | title = Solanaceae Biology and Systematics | year = 1986 | publisher = Columbia University Press | isbn = 978-0-231-05780-6 | page = 24 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fCt3zd8cGaIC&lpg=PA25&dq=brugmansia%20naturalized%20australia&pg=PA24#v=onepage&q&f=false | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140523090957/http://books.google.com/books?id=fCt3zd8cGaIC&lpg=PA25&dq=brugmansia%20naturalized%20australia&pg=PA24#v=onepage&q&f=false | archivedate = 2014-05-23 | df = }} 8. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.biologi.lipi.go.id/bio_bidang/file_doc_bidang/Report_of_Ristek-Dikti-LIPi_Incentive_Project_2010.pdf |title= Ecology, Distribution and Bio-acoustic of Amphibians in Degraded Habitat |author= Kurniati, H. |date= November 2010 |publisher= |accessdate= December 5, 2011 |display-authors= etal |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20120426023016/http://www.biologi.lipi.go.id/bio_bidang/file_doc_bidang/Report_of_Ristek-Dikti-LIPi_Incentive_Project_2010.pdf |archivedate= 2012-04-26 |df= }} 9. ^{{cite book | author1 = Haridasan, K. | author2 = Roa, R. R. | title = Forest Flora of Meghalaya Vol. II | year = 1985 | publisher = Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh | lccn = 85904619 | page = 646 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=N8hGAAAAYAAJ&q=brugmansia+naturalized+india&dq=brugmansia+naturalized+india&hl=en&sa=X&ei=evz4To_NJ63XiQLpg5CJDQ&ved=0CEYQ6AEwAzgK | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140103112636/http://books.google.com/books?id=N8hGAAAAYAAJ&q=brugmansia+naturalized+india&dq=brugmansia+naturalized+india&hl=en&sa=X&ei=evz4To_NJ63XiQLpg5CJDQ&ved=0CEYQ6AEwAzgK | archivedate = 2014-01-03 | df = }} 10. ^{{ cite book | last = Barwick | first = M. | title = Tropical and Subtropical Trees: An Encyclopedia | publisher = Timber Press | year = 2004 | url = https://www.amazon.com/Tropical-Subtropical-Trees-Margaret-Barwick/dp/0500511810/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1323061514&sr=1-1 | isbn = 978-0-88192-661-3 }} 11. ^{{ cite book | last = Eich | first = E. | title = Solanaceae and Convolvulaceae - Secondary Metabolites | year = 2008 | pages = 157–158 | publisher = Springer | isbn = 978-3-540-74540-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZpYtUED_DSsC&pg=PA157&dq=scopolamine+truth+drug+brugmansia&hl=en&ei=tnLYTsDuMunhiAK_49mfCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=scopolamine%20truth%20drug%20brugmansia&f=false | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20180217193534/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZpYtUED_DSsC&pg=PA157&dq=scopolamine+truth+drug+brugmansia&hl=en&ei=tnLYTsDuMunhiAK_49mfCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=scopolamine%20truth%20drug%20brugmansia&f=false | archivedate = 2018-02-17 | df = }} 12. ^{{cite journal | last = Lockwood | first = T. E. | title = Generic Recognition of Brugmansia | journal = Botanical Museum Leaflets | volume = 23 | issue = | pages = 273–283 | year = 1973 | url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/7467342#page/296/mode/1up}} 13. ^1 {{cite book | last1 = Hay | first1 = A. | last2 = Gottschalk | first2 = M. | last3 = Holguín | first3 = A. | title = Huanduj: Brugmansia | publisher = Royal Botanic Gardens Kew | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-1-84246-477-9 }} 14. ^1 {{ cite journal | author = Shaw, J. M. H. | year = 1999 | title = Nomenclature Notes on Brugmansia | journal = The New Plantsman | publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 148–151 }} 15. ^{{cite book | last = Lockwood | first = T. E. | title = A taxonomic revision of Brugmansia (Solanaceae) | oclc = 38575671 | year = 1973 }} 16. ^{{cite journal | last = Schultes | first = R. E. | author2 = Bright, A. | title = A Native Drawing of an Hallucinogenic Plant From Colombia | journal = Botanical Museum Leaflets | volume = 25 | issue = 6 | publisher = Harvard University | location = Cambridge, MA | year = 1977 | url = http://www.wlbcenter.org/Schultes%20Publications/BotMusLeaf_25_151-159.pdf | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120426022427/http://www.wlbcenter.org/Schultes%20Publications/BotMusLeaf_25_151-159.pdf | archivedate = 2012-04-26 | df = }} 17. ^{{cite book | last = Schultes | first = R. E. | title = Ethnobotany and History of Brugmansia }} 18. ^{{cite book |last= Harner|first= Michael|date= 1980|title= The Way of the Shaman| location= New York |publisher= Harper & Row }} 19. ^1 {{cite journal | last = de Feo | first = V. | title = The ritual use of Brugmansia species in traditional Andean medicine in Northern Peru | journal = Economic Botany | year = 2004 | volume = 58 | issue = Supplement 1 | pages = S221-S229 | doi = 10.1663/0013-0001(2004)58[S221:TRUOBS]2.0.CO;2 | url = http://www.springerlink.com/content/mn97320362543853/fulltext.pdf }} 20. ^{{cite book | last1 = Duke | first1 = J. A. | last2 = Martinez | first2 = R. V. | title = Amazonian Ethnobotanical Dictionary | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-0-8493-3664-5 | page = 33 }} 21. ^1 2 {{cite book | last = Pratt | first = C. | title = An Encyclopedia of Shamanism | volume = 1 | year = 2007 | publisher = The Rosen Publishing Group | isbn = 978-1-4042-1140-7 | pages = 68–70 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=V_betetLgEMC&lpg=PA68&dq=brugmansia&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140107223331/http://books.google.com/books?id=V_betetLgEMC&lpg=PA68&dq=brugmansia&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false | archivedate = 2014-01-07 | df = }} 22. ^{{cite book | last1 = Fuller | first1 = T. C. | first2 = E. | last2 = McClintock | title = Poisonous plants of California | year = 1988 | publisher = University of California Press | isbn = 978-0-520-05569-8 | pages = 233–235 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0-op0XwlDmQC&lpg=PA235&dq=brugmansia%20children%20ancestors&pg=PA234#v=onepage&q&f=false | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170331061519/https://books.google.com/books?id=0-op0XwlDmQC&lpg=PA235&dq=brugmansia%20children%20ancestors&pg=PA234#v=onepage&q&f=false | archivedate = 2017-03-31 | df = }} 23. ^{{cite book | last = Schultes | first = R. E. | title = The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens | year = 1980 | publisher = Harvard University | location = Cambridge, MA | isbn = 978-0-398-03863-2 | page = 270 | url = https://books.google.com/books?ei=Um3_TqCKLOHaiQLt3rDFDg&id=QrLwAAAAMAAJ&dq=brugmansia+children+ancestors&q=recalcitrant | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170321055141/https://books.google.com/books?ei=Um3_TqCKLOHaiQLt3rDFDg&id=QrLwAAAAMAAJ&dq=brugmansia+children+ancestors&q=recalcitrant | archivedate = 2017-03-21 | df = }} 24. ^{{cite journal | author = Royal Horticultural Society (Great Britain) | title = The Garden | year = 2004 | volume = 2004 | pages = 557 }} 25. ^{{cite book | title = Biology Digest | publisher = Plexus | volume = 18 | year = 1991 | lccn = 75646463 }} 26. ^{{cite journal |author1=Evans, W. C. |author2=Lampard, J. F. | title = Alkaloids of Datura suaveolens | journal = Phytochemistry | year = 1972 | volume = 11 | issue = 11 | pages = 3293–3298 | doi = 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)86392-X }} 27. ^1 {{Cite journal | last1 = van der Donck | first1 = I. | last2 = Mulliez | first2 = E. | last3 = Blanckaert | first3 = J. | title = Angel's Trumpet (Brugmansia arborea) and mydriasis in a child - A case report | journal = Bulletin de la Societe Belge d'Ophtalmologie | year = 2004 | volume = 2004 | issue = 292 | pages = 53–56 | pmid = 15253491 | url = http://www.ophthalmologia.be/download.php?dof_id=223 | issn = 0081-0746 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090505194207/http://www.ophthalmologia.be/download.php?dof_id=223 | archivedate = 2009-05-05 | df = }} 28. ^{{cite book | last = Wagstaff | first = D. J. | title = International poisonous plants checklist: an evidence-based reference | publisher = CRC Press | year = 2008 | page = 69 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=h7tbd-5ZAQ8C&lpg=PA124&dq=datura%20%20suaveolens%20fatal&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn = 978-1-4200-6252-6 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20180217193534/https://books.google.com/books?id=h7tbd-5ZAQ8C&lpg=PA124&dq=datura%20%20suaveolens%20fatal&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false | archivedate = 2018-02-17 | df = }} 29. ^{{cite book | last = Greenburg | first = M. I. | title = Disaster!: A Compendium of Terrorist, Natural and Man-Made Catastrophes | year = 2006 | page = 84 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EZAdQAuPyKAC&lpg=PA84&dq=datura%20%20suaveolens%20death&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn = 978-0-7637-3989-8 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20180217193534/https://books.google.com/books?id=EZAdQAuPyKAC&lpg=PA84&dq=datura%20%20suaveolens%20death&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&f=false | archivedate = 2018-02-17 | df = }} 30. ^{{ cite journal | last = Hayman | first = J. | title = Datura Poisoning-the Angel's Trumpet | journal = Pathology | year = 1985 | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 465–466 | doi = 10.3109/00313028509105502 | pmid = 4069765 }} 31. ^{{cite journal | last = Marneros | first = A. | author2 = Gutmann, P. | author3 = Uhlmann, F. | title = Self-amputation of penis and tongue after use of Angel's Trumpet | journal = European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2006 | volume = 256 | issue = 7 | pages = 458–459 | doi = 10.1007/s00406-006-0666-2 | pmid = 16783491 | url = http://files.shroomery.org/attachments/8621977-Datura,%20Penises%20and%20What%20you%20should%20know.pdf | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304214709/http://files.shroomery.org/attachments/8621977-Datura,%20Penises%20and%20What%20you%20should%20know.pdf | archivedate = 2016-03-04 | df = }} 32. ^{{cite book | last1 = Roberts | first1 = M. F. | last2 = Wink | first2 = M. | title = Alkaloids: Biochemistry, Ecology, and Medicinal Applications | year = 1998 | publisher = Springer | isbn = 978-0-306-45465-3 | page = 28 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bMCzyrAtrvYC&lpg=PA28&dq=brugmansia&pg=PA28#v=onepage&q&f=false | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170217140933/https://books.google.com/books?id=bMCzyrAtrvYC&lpg=PA28&dq=brugmansia&pg=PA28#v=onepage&q&f=false | archivedate = 2017-02-17 | df = }} 33. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.itsmymaitland.com/city_codes.pdf|title=CODE, CITY OF MAITLAND, FLORIDA|date=March 27, 2000|work=|publisher=|accessdate=December 20, 2011|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426072207/http://www.itsmymaitland.com/city_codes.pdf|archivedate=April 26, 2012|df=}} 34. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14519630-300-last-blast-for-floridas-teenage-trippers/|title=Last blast for Florida’s teenage trippers|publisher=|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217064402/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14519630-300-last-blast-for-floridas-teenage-trippers/|archivedate=2017-02-17|df=}} 35. ^{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector - Brugmansia × candida 'Grand Marnier'|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=263|accessdate=18 June 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130807064451/http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=263|archivedate=7 August 2013|df=}} Further reading
External links{{Commons category|Brugmansia}}{{Wikispecies}}
6 : Brugmansia|Solanaceae genera|Entheogens|Deliriants|Herbal and fungal hallucinogens|Ayahuasca |
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