词条 | Buddhism and science |
释义 |
Buddhism has been described by some as rational and non-dogmatic, and there is evidence that this has been the case from the earliest period of its history,[5] though some have suggested this aspect is given greater emphasis in modern times and is in part a reinterpretation.[6] Not all forms of Buddhism eschew dogmatism, remain neutral on the subject of the supernatural, or are open to scientific discoveries. Buddhism is a varied tradition and aspects include fundamentalism,[7] devotional traditions,[8] and supplication to local spirits.[9] Nevertheless, certain commonalities have been cited between scientific investigation and Buddhist thought. Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, in a speech at the meeting of the Society for Neuroscience[10], listed a "suspicion of absolutes" and a reliance on causality and empiricism as common philosophical principles shared between Buddhism and science.[11] Buddhism and psychology{{Main|Buddhism and psychology}}During the 1970s, several experimental studies suggested that Buddhist meditation could produce insights into a wide range of psychological states. Interest in the use of meditation as a means of providing insight into mind-states has recently been revived, following the increased availability of such brain-scanning technologies as fMRI and SPECT. Such studies are enthusiastically encouraged by the present Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, who has long expressed an interest in exploring the connection between Buddhism and science and regularly attends the Mind and Life Institute Conferences.[12] In 1974 the Kagyu Buddhist teacher Chögyam Trungpa predicted that "Buddhism will come to the West as psychology". This view was apparently regarded with considerable skepticism at the time, but Buddhist concepts have indeed made most in-roads in the psychological sciences. Some modern scientific theories, such as Rogerian psychology, show strong parallels with Buddhist thought. Some of the most interesting work on the relationship between Buddhism and science is being done in the area of comparison between Yogacara theories regarding the store consciousness and modern evolutionary biology, especially DNA. This is because the Yogacara theory of karmic seeds works well in explaining the nature/nurture problem.[13][14][15] William James often drew on Buddhist cosmology when framing perceptual concepts, such as his term "stream of consciousness," which is the literal English translation of the Pali vinnana-sota. The "stream of consciousness" is given various names throughout the many languages of Buddhadharma discourse but in English is generally known as "Mindstream".[16] In Varieties of Religious Experience James also promoted the functional value of meditation for modern psychology.[17] He is said to have proclaimed in a course lecture at Harvard, "This is the psychology everybody will be studying twenty-five years from now."[18][19]Buddhism as scienceBuddhist teacher S.N. Goenka describes Buddhadharma as a 'pure science of mind and matter'.[20] Dharmakirti describes Atoms(paramanu) in his Pramanavarttika, which are very shortliving.Vasubandhu describes two particles in his Abhidharmakośabhāṣya : dravya- and sanghata - paramanu[21]. Some Abhidharmikas such as the Sarvastivadins also defended an atomic theory. The Mahabhivasa states : "An atom (paramänu) is the smallest rüpa. It cannot be cut, broken, penetrated; it cannot be taken up, abandoned, ridden on, stepped on, struck or dragged. It is neither long nor short, square nor round, regular nor irregular, convex nor concave. It has no smaller parts; it cannot be decomposed, cannot be seen, heard, smelled, touched. It is thus that the paramänu is said to be the finest (sarva-süksma) of all rüpas." Notable scientists on BuddhismNiels Bohr, who developed the Bohr Model of the atom, said, {{quote|For a parallel to the lesson of atomic theory...[we must turn] to those kinds of epistemological problems with which already thinkers like the Buddha and Lao Tzu have been confronted, when trying to harmonize our position as spectators and actors in the great drama of existence.[22]}}Nobel Prize–winning philosopher Bertrand Russell described Buddhism as a speculative and scientific philosophy: {{quote|Buddhism is a combination of both speculative and scientific philosophy. It advocates the scientific method and pursues that to a finality that may be called Rationalistic. In it are to be found answers to such questions of interest as: 'What is mind and matter? Of them, which is of greater importance? Is the universe moving towards a goal? What is man's position? Is there living that is noble?' It takes up where science cannot lead because of the limitations of the latter's instruments. Its conquests are those of the mind.[23]}}The American physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer made an analogy to Buddhism when describing the Heisenberg uncertainty principle: {{quote|If we ask, for instance, whether the position of the electron remains the same, we must say 'no;' if we ask whether the electron's position changes with time, we must say 'no;' if we ask whether the electron is at rest, we must say 'no;' if we ask whether it is in motion, we must say 'no.' The Buddha has given such answers when interrogated as to the conditions of man's self after his death; but they are not familiar answers for the tradition of seventeenth and eighteenth-century science.[24]}}Nobel Prize–winning physicist Albert Einstein, who developed the general theory of relativity and the special theory of relativity, also known for his mass–energy equivalence, described Buddhism as containing a strong cosmic element: {{quote|...there is found a third level of religious experience, even if it is seldom found in a pure form. I will call it the cosmic religious sense. This is hard to make clear to those who do not experience it, since it does not involve an anthropomorphic idea of God; the individual feels the vanity of human desires and aims, and the nobility and marvelous order which are revealed in nature and in the world of thought. He feels the individual destiny as an imprisonment and seeks to experience the totality of existence as a unity full of significance. Indications of this cosmic religious sense can be found even on earlier levels of development—for example, in the Psalms of David and in the Prophets. The cosmic element is much stronger in Buddhism, as, in particular, Schopenhauer's magnificent essays have shown us. The religious geniuses of all times have been distinguished by this cosmic religious sense, which recognizes neither dogmas nor God made in man's image. Consequently there cannot be a church whose chief doctrines are based on the cosmic religious experience. It comes about, therefore, that we find precisely among the heretics of all ages men who were inspired by this highest religious experience; often they appeared to their contemporaries as atheists, but sometimes also as saints.[25]}}See also{{Div col}}
References1. ^Yong, Amos. (2005) Buddhism and Science: Breaking New Ground (review) Buddhist-Christian Studies - Volume 25, 2005, pp. 176-180 2. ^Donald S. Lopez Jr., [https://books.google.com/books?hl=de&lr=&id=M1rTNRb5uA4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=Buddhism+and+science&ots=DwlaMW4Rcb&sig=OsBeomNKFX5YCtQ2zYutVdXpvkU#v=onepage&q=Buddhism%20and%20science&f=false Buddhism and Science: A Guide for the Perplexed], (University of Chicago Press 2008) 3. ^{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/663726/Oliver_Kress_-_A_new_approach_to_cognitive_development_ontogenesis_and_the_process_of_initiation|title=Oliver Kress - A new approach to cognitive development: ontogenesis and the process of initiation|first=Oliver|last=Kress|publisher=|via=www.academia.edu}} 4. ^Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja "Magic, Science and Religion and the Scope of Rationality" (Cambridge University Press 1990) 5. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/kalama1.htm |title=Buddhist Scriptures: Kalama Sutta |publisher=Buddhanet.net |date= |accessdate=2013-03-04}} 6. ^Snodgrass, Judith. (2007) Defining Modern Buddhism: Mr. and Mrs. Rhys Davids and the Pāli Text Society Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East - Volume 27, Number 1, 2007, pp. 186-202 7. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.buddhistethics.org/6/fenn991.html |title=Journal of Buddhist Ethics ''A Review of Buddhist Fundamentalism and Minority Identities in Sri Lanka'' |publisher=Buddhistethics.org |date= |accessdate=2013-03-04 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416102242/http://www.buddhistethics.org/6/fenn991.html |archivedate=April 16, 2009 }} 8. ^Safire, William (2007) The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge {{ISBN|0-312-37659-6}} p.718 9. ^Deegalle, Mahinda (2006) Popularizing Buddhism: Preaching as Performance in Sri Lanka {{ISBN|0-7914-6897-6}} p.131 10. ^"[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dalai-lama-talks-science/ Talking Up Enlightenment]." Christina Reed Scientific American, 6 February 2006 11. ^"The Neuroscience of Meditation." November 12, 2005 speech given by the Dalai Lama 12. ^Christina Reed, "Talking Up Enlightenment." Scientific American, 6 February 2006.{{full citation needed|date=May 2015}} 13. ^Waldron, William S. (1995). [https://web.archive.org/web/20131116104411/http://www.gampoabbey.org/documents/Waldron%20HIIA-revised-b.pdf How Innovative is the Ālayavijñāna?: The ālayavijñāna in the context of canonical and Abhidharma vijñāna theory]. (accessed: Wednesday April 21, 2010). 14. ^Waldron, William S. (2002). Buddhist Steps to an Ecology of Mind: Thinking about 'Thoughts without a Thinker'. Source: (accessed: Wednesday April 21, 2010). 15. ^Waldron, William S. (2003). The Buddhist unconscious: the ālaya-vijñāna in the context of Indian Buddhist thought. RoutledgeCurzon critical studies in Buddhism. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-29809-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-29809-4}} 16. ^B. Alan Wallace, Brian Hodel (2008). Embracing mind: the common ground of science and spirituality. Shambhala Publications. {{ISBN|1-59030-482-9}}, {{ISBN|978-1-59030-482-2}}. Source: [https://books.google.com/books?id=Rsv-FGH-MQcC&pg=PA186&dq=mindstream&lr=&ei=PdvOS9GUC6qUkASM9qygAQ&cd=27#v=onepage&q&f=false], (accessed: Wednesday April 21, 2010) p.186 17. ^William James, Varieties of Religious Experience. (1902; New York: Viking Penguin, 1982). 18. ^{{cite book|last1=Fields|first1=Rick|title=How the Swans Came to the Lake|date=1992|publisher=Shambhala Publications|pages=134–135|edition=3rd}} 19. ^{{cite book|last1=Fessenden|first1=Tracy|last2=Radel|first2=Nicholas F.|last3=Zaborowska|first3=Magdalena J.|title=The Puritan Origins of American Sex: Religion, Sexuality, and National Identity in American Literature|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|page=209}} 20. ^{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100713220425/http://www.vridhamma.org/en1998-08.aspx|title=Vipassana Research Institute|date=13 July 2010|website=web.archive.org}} 21. ^ Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition , Noa Ronkin , London ; New Yorkroutledgecurzon 22. ^1958 Niels Bohr, Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge, (edited by John Wiley and Sons, 1958) p. 20. 23. ^{{cite web|url=http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/VerhoevenBuddhismScience.htm |title="Buddhism and Science: Probing the Boundaries of Faith and Reason," Verhoeven, Martin J., ''Religion East and West'', Issue 1, June 2001, pp. 77-97 |publisher=Online.sfsu.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-03-04}} 24. ^J. R. Oppenheimer, Science and the Common Understanding, (Oxford University Press, 1954) pp 8-9. 25. ^Religion and Science (1930){{full citation needed|date=May 2015}} Further reading
External links
1 : Buddhism and science |
随便看 |
|
开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识,基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识,是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。