“Charity (practice)”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The practice of charity means the voluntary giving of help to those in need, as a humanitarian act.

Etymology

The word charity originated in late Old English to mean a "Christian love of one's fellows,"^[1] and up until at least the beginning of the 20th century, this meaning remained synonymous with charity.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] Aside from this original meaning, charity is etymologically linked to Christianity, with the word originally entering into the English language through the Old French word "charité", which was derived from the Latin "caritas", a word commonly used in the Vulgate New Testament to translate the Greek word agape ({{linktext|ἀγάπη}}), a distinct form of "love"^[6] (see the article: Charity (virtue)).

Over time, the meaning of charity has shifted from one of "Christian love" to that of "providing for those in need; generosity and giving,"^[7]^[1] a transition which began with the Old French word charité.^[6] Thus, while the older Douay-Rheims and King James versions of the Bible translate instances of "agape" (such as those that appear in 1 Corinthians 13) as "charity", modern English versions of the Bible typically translate "agape" as "love."^[8]

Practice

Charitable giving is the act of giving money, goods or time to the unfortunate, either directly or by means of a charitable trust or other worthy cause.^[9] Charitable giving as a religious act or duty is referred to as almsgiving or alms. The name stems from the most obvious expression of the virtue of charity; giving the recipients of it the means they need to survive. The impoverished, particularly those widowed or orphaned, and the ailing or injured, are generally regarded as the proper recipients of charity. The people who cannot support themselves and lack outside means of support sometimes become "beggars", directly soliciting aid from strangers encountered in public.

Some groups regard charity as being distributed towards other members from within their particular group. Although giving to those nearly connected to oneself is sometimes called charity—as in the saying "Charity begins at home"—normally charity denotes giving to those not related, with filial piety and like terms for supporting one's family and friends. Indeed, treating those related to the giver as if they were strangers in need of charity has led to the figure of speech "as cold as charity"—providing for one's relatives as if they were strangers, without affection.^[10]

Most forms of charity are concerned with providing basic necessities such as food, water, clothing, healthcare and shelter, but other actions may be performed as charity: visiting the imprisoned or the homebound, ransoming captives, educating orphans, even social movements. Donations to causes that benefit the unfortunate indirectly, such as donations to fund cancer research, are also charity.

With regards to religious aspects, the recipient of charity may offer to pray for the benefactor. In medieval Europe, it was customary to feast the poor at the funeral in return for their prayers for the deceased. Institutions may commemorate benefactors by displaying their names, up to naming buildings or even the institution itself after the benefactors. If the recipient makes material return of more than a token value, the transaction is normally not called charity.

In the past{{which|date=March 2016}} century, many charitable organizations have created a "charitable model" in which donators give to conglomerates give to recipients. Examples of this include the Make a Wish Foundation (John Cena holds the title for most wishes granted by a single individual, with over 450 wishes) and the World Wildlife Fund. Today some charities have modernized, and allow people to donate online, through websites such as JustGiving. Originally charity entailed the benefactor directly giving the goods to the receiver. This practice was continued by some individuals, for example, "CNN Hero" Sal Dimiceli, and service organizations, such as the Jaycees. With the rise of more social peer-to-peer processes, many charities are moving away from the charitable model and starting to adopt this more direct donator to recipient approach. Examples of this include Global Giving (direct funding of community development projects in developing countries), DonorsChoose (for US-based projects), PureCharity, Kiva (funding loans administered by microfinance organizations in developing countries) and Zidisha (funding individual microfinance borrowers directly).

Institutions evolved to carry out the labor of assisting the poor, and these institutions, called charities, provide the bulk of charitable giving today, in terms of monetary value. These include orphanages, food banks, religious institutes dedicated to care of the poor, hospitals, organizations that visit the homebound and imprisoned, and many others. Such institutions allow those whose time or inclination does not lend themselves to directly care for the poor to enable others to do so, both by providing money for the work and supporting them while they do the work. Institutions can also attempt to more effectively sort out the actually needy from those who fraudulently claim charity. Early Christians particularly recommended the care of the unfortunate to the charge of the local bishop.

There have been examinations of who gives more to charity. One study conducted in the United States found that as a percentage of income, charitable giving increased as income decreased. The poorest fifth of Americans, for example, gave away 4.3% of their income, while the wealthiest fifth gave away 2.1%. In absolute terms, this was an average of $453 on an average income of $10,531, compared to $3,326 on an income of $158,388.^[11]

Criticism

Critics of charitable giving contend that simply transferring gifts or money to disadvantaged people has negative long-term effects. The online microlending organization Zidisha published a blog post which contended that providing handouts can actually cause harm by incentivizing lack of progress out of poverty, and by creating a dependence mentality among recipients. According to Zidisha, microfinance lending is a better alternative than donations, because it incentivizes successful investment of the funds and creates a can-do mentality on the part of recipients.^[12]

A philosophical critique of charity can be found in Oscar Wilde's The Soul of Man, where he calls it "a ridiculously inadequate mode of partial restitution . . . usually accompanied by some impertinent attempt on the part of the sentimentalist to tyrannise over [the poor's] private lives", as well as a remedy that prolongs the "disease" of poverty, rather than curing it.^[13]

Wilde's thoughts are cited with approval by Slavoj Žižek, and the Slovenian thinker adds his description of the effect of charity on the charitable:

When, confronted with the starving child, we are told: "For the price of a couple of cappuccinos, you can save her life!", the true message is: "For the price of a couple of cappuccinos, you can continue in your ignorant and pleasurable life, not only not feeling any guilt, but even feeling good for having participated in the struggle against suffering!"

Friedrich Engels, in his 1845 treatise on the condition of the working class in England, points out that charitable giving, whether by governments or individuals, is often seen by the givers as a means to conceal suffering that is unpleasant to see. Engels quotes from a letter to the editor of an English newspaper who complains that

The Institute of Economic Affairs published a report in 2012 called "Sock Puppets: How the government lobbies itself and why", which criticised the phenomenon of governments funding charities which then lobby the government for changes which the government wanted all along.^[15]

Charity in Christianity

In medieval Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries, Latin Christendom underwent a charitable revolution.^[16] Rich patrons founded many leprosaria and hospitals for the sick and poor. New confraternities and religious orders emerged with the primary mission of engaging in intensive charitable work. Historians debate the causes. Some argue that this movement was spurred by economic and material forces, as well as a burgeoning urban culture. Other scholars argue that developments in spirituality and devotional culture were central. For still other scholars, medieval charity was primarily a way to elevate one's social status and affirm existing hierarchies of power.^[17]

Tzedakah in Judaism

In Judaism, tzedakah—a Hebrew term literally meaning righteousness but commonly used to signify charity^[18]—refers to the religious obligation to do what is right and just.^[19] Because it is commanded by the Torah and not voluntary, the practice is not technically an act of charity; such a concept is virtually nonexistent in Jewish tradition. Jews give tzedakah, which can take the form of money, time and resources to the needy, out of "righteousness" and "justice" rather than benevolence, generosity, or charitableness.^[19] The Torah requires that 10 percent of a Jew's income be allotted to righteous deeds or causes, regardless if the receiving party is rich or poor.

Zakat and Sadaqa in Islam

Zakat is one of the five pillars upon which the Muslim religion is based, where 2.5% of one's saving is compulsory to be given as Zakat per Islamic calendar year, provided that the saving is beyond the threshold limit, called Nisab, usually determined by the religious authority.

Sadaqa is voluntary charity or contribution. Sadaqa can be given using money, personal items, time or other resources. There is no minimum or maximum requirement for Sadaqa. Even smiling to other people is considered a Sadaqa.^[20]

Dāna in Indian religions

The practice of charity is called Dāna or Daana in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. It is the virtue of generosity or giving.^[21]^[22] Dāna has been defined in traditional texts, state Krishnan and Manoj,^[23] as “any action of relinquishing the ownership of what one considered or identified as one's own, and investing the same in a recipient without expecting anything in return”. Karna, Mahabali and Harishchandra are heroes also known for giving charity.

The earliest known discussion of charity as a virtuous practice, in Indian texts, is in Rigveda.^[24]^[25] According to other ancient texts of Hinduism, dāna can take the form of feeding or giving to an individual in distress or need.^[26] It can also take the form of philanthropic public projects that empower and help many.^[27]^[28]^[29]

Dāna leads to one of the perfections (pāramitā). This can be characterized by unattached and unconditional generosity, giving and letting go.^[30]

Historical records, such as those by the Persian historian Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī who visited India in early 11th century, suggest dāna has been an ancient and medieval era practice among Indian religions.^[31]^[32]

See also

References

1. ^¹{{Cite book |title=Oxford Dictionary of English |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=293 |date=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=anecAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA293}}
2. ^{{Cite book |title=The concise Oxford dictionary of current English |date=1912 |pages=137–138 |url=https://archive.org/stream/conciseoxforddic00fowlrich#page/136/mode/2up}}
3. ^{{Cite book |title=Charity, or Christian Love. A sermon, etc |date=1837 |last=Crisp |first=Thomas Steffe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7fOBKf1YPEC&printsec=frontcover}}
4. ^{{Cite book |title=Christian love : or charity an essential element of true Christian character |date=1850 |last=Wise |first=Daniel |authorlink=Daniel Wise (author) |url=https://archive.org/details/christianloveorc00wise}}
5. ^{{Cite book |title=Charity and Its Fruits: Or, Christian Love as Manifested in the Heart and Life |date=1852 |orig-year=1738 |last=Edwards |first=Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Edwards (theologian) |url=https://archive.org/details/christianloveorc00wise}}
6. ^¹{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/charity |date=2018 |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |title=Charity origin and meaning |access-date=March 5, 2018}}
7. ^{{cite web |title=Definition of Charity |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/charity |publisher=Merriam-Webster |access-date=March 5, 2018}}
8. ^{{cite web |url=http://biblehub.com/1_corinthians/13-1.htm |title=1 Corinthians 13:1 |access-date=March 5, 2018}}
9. ^{{Cite journal|last=Marquis|first=Christopher|last2=Tilcsik|first2=András|date=2016-10-01|title=Institutional Equivalence: How Industry and Community Peers Influence Corporate Philanthropy|url=http://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/orsc.2016.1083|journal=Organization Science|volume=27|issue=5|pages=1325–1341|doi=10.1287/orsc.2016.1083|issn=1047-7039}}
10. ^{{cite journal|last=Dunn|first=Alison|title=As 'cold as charity'?* poverty, equity and the charitable trust|journal=Legal Studies|volume=20|issue=2|pages=222–240|doi=10.1111/j.1748-121X.2000.tb00141.x|year=2000}}
11. ^"America's poor are its most generous donors" {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527080829/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2009253657_charity23.html |date=May 27, 2009 }}, by Frank Greve, McClatchy Newspapers as appears in the Seattle Times, published May 23, 2009
12. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/julia-kurnia/about-to-send-a-donation_b_4623503.html|title = About to send a donation? Think twice. |date = January 18, 2014|publisher = Huffington Post}}
13. ^{{cite book |author=Oscar Wilde |title=The Soul of Man under Socialism |year=1891 |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1017}}
14. ^The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845), Penguin edition (1987), p. 277.
15. ^{{cite web|url=https://iea.org.uk/publications/research/sock-puppets-how-the-government-lobbies-itself-and-why/|title=Sock Puppets: How the government lobbies itself and why|author=|date=|website=Institute of Economic Affairs|accessdate=28 March 2018}}
16. ^J. W. Brodman, Charity and Religion in Medieval Europe (2009)
17. ^Adam J. Davis, "The Social and Religious Meanings of Charity in Medieval Europe" History Compass (2014) 12#12 pp 935–950
18. ^Rabbi Hayim Halevy Donin; "To Be A Jew". Basic Books, New York; 1972, pp. 48.
19. ^¹Tzedakah vs The Myth of Charity; by Yanki Tauber; Retrieved 03-11-2012.
20. ^{{Cite web|url=https://fortyessentialhadith.wordpress.com/2011/05/09/hadith-31-your-smile-to-your-brother-is-sadaqa/|title=Hadith 31: Your Smile to Your Brother is a Sadaqah|date=2011-05-09|website=Forty Essential Hadith|access-date=2017-04-28}}
21. ^William Owen Cole (1991), Moral Issues in Six Religions, Heinemann, {{ISBN|978-0-435-30299-3}}, pages 104–105
22. ^Krishnan & Manoj (2008), Giving as a theme in the Indian psychology of values, in Handbook of Indian Psychology (Editors: Rao et al.), Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-8175966024}}, pages 365–366.
23. ^Krishnan & Manoj (2008), Giving as a theme in the Indian psychology of values, in Handbook of Indian Psychology (Editors: Rao et al.), Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-8175966024}}, pages 361–382; summary of the article
24. ^The Rig Veda, Mandala 10, Hymn 117, Ralph T. H. Griffith (Translator)
25. ^R Hindery, Comparative ethics in Hindu and Buddhist traditions, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol 2, Number 1, page 105.
26. ^[https://archive.org/stream/mahabharataofkri08royp#page/310/mode/2up Anushasana Parva, Section LIX] The Mahabharata, Translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, pages 310–311.
27. ^[https://archive.org/stream/mahabharataofkri08royp#page/306/mode/2up Anushasana Parva, Section LVIII] The Mahabharata, Translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, Published by P.C. Roy (1893).
28. ^Sanjay Agarwal (2010), Daan and Other Giving Traditions in India,{{asin|B00E0R033S}}, pages 54–62.
29. ^Kota Neelima (2012), Tirupati, Random House, {{ISBN|978-8184001983}}, pages 50–52; Prabhavati C. Reddy (2014), Hindu Pilgrimage: Shifting Patterns of Worldview of Srisailam in South India, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-65997-0}}, page 190.
30. ^{{cite book |author=Tsong-kha-pa |authorlink=Je Tsongkhapa |editor=Joshua Cutler |editor2=Guy Newland |others= |title= The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment, Volume II |origyear= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |year=2002|publisher= Snow Lion |location= Canada |language= |isbn= 1-55939-168-5 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}: 236, 238.
31. ^Alberuni's India (v. 2), Chapter LXVII, On Alms and how a man must spend what he earns, Columbia University Libraries, London : Kegan Paul, Trübner & Co., (1910), pages 149–150.
32. ^Maria Heim (2004), Theories of the Gift in Medieval South Asia: Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-521-60513-7}}, pages 4–6.