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词条 Competition between Airbus and Boeing
释义

  1. Competing products

     Passenger capacity and range comparison  Cargo capacity and range comparison  Airbus A320 vs Boeing 737   Twin aisles   Airbus A380 vs Boeing 747  EADS/Northrop Grumman KC-45A vs Boeing KC-767  Small narrowbodies 

  2. Modes of competition

     Outsourcing  Technology  Engine choices  Currency and exchange rates  Safety and quality   Aircraft prices   Production planning 

  3. Effect of competition on product plans

  4. Orders and deliveries

  5. Controversies

     Subsidies  World Trade Organization litigation 

  6. See also

  7. Notes

  8. References

  9. External links

The competition between Airbus and Boeing has been characterised as a duopoly in the large jet airliner market since the 1990s.[1] This resulted from a series of mergers within the global aerospace industry, with Airbus beginning as a European consortium while the American Boeing absorbed its former arch-rival, McDonnell Douglas, in 1997. Other manufacturers, such as Lockheed Martin and Convair in the United States, and British Aerospace (now BAE Systems) and Fokker in Europe, were no longer able to compete and effectively withdrew from this market.

In the 10 years from 2007 to 2016, Airbus has received 9,985 orders while delivering 5,644, and Boeing has received 8,978 orders while delivering 5,718. During their period of intense competition, each company has regularly accused the other of receiving unfair state aid from their respective governments.

Competing products

Passenger capacity and range comparison

Airbus and Boeing have wide product ranges including single-aisle and wide-body aircraft covering a variety of combinations of capacity and range.

Single aisle : Airbus,[2] 737[3]
Type length span MTOW pax range list price[4][5][6]
A220-100 35 m 35.1 m 60.8 t 116 2950 nm US$79.5M
A220-300 38.7 m 35.1 m 67.6 t 141 3200 nm US$89.5M
737 MAX-7 35.6 m 35.9 m 80.3 t 138 3850 nm US$96.0M
A319neo 33.84 m 35.8 m 75.5 t 140 3700 nm US$101.5M
737 MAX-8 39.5 m 35.9 m 82.19 t 162 3550 nm US$117.1M
A320neo 37.57 m 35.8 m 79 t 165 3400 nm US$110.6M
737 MAX-9 42.11 m 35.9 m 88.31 t 178 3550 nm US$120.2M
737 MAX-10 43.8 m 35.9 m 188 3300 nm US$129.9M
A321neo 44.51 m 35.8 m 97 t 206 4000 nm US$129.5M
Flight Global fleet forecasts 26,860 single aisle deliveries for a $1,360 Bn value at a compound annual growth rate of 5% for the 2016-2035 period, with a 45% market share for Airbus ({{#expr:26860*0.45round-1}}), 43% for Boeing ({{#expr:26860*0.43round-1}}), 5% for Bombardier Aerospace ({{#expr:26860*0.05round-1}}), 4% for COMAC ({{#expr:26860*0.04round-1}}) and 3% for Irkut Corporation ({{#expr:26860*0.03round-1}}) ; Airbus predicts 23,531 and Boeing 28,140.[7] Single aisles generates a vast majority of profits for both, followed by legacy twin aisles like the A330 and B777: Kevin Michaels of AeroDynamic Advisory estimates the 737 have a 30% profit margin and the 777 classic 20%.[8]{{see also|Middle of the market}}
Widebodies : Airbus,[2] 787,[9] 777X,[10] 747[11]
Type length span MTOW pax range list price[4][5]
787-8 56.69 m 60.17 m 227.95 t 242 7355 nm US$239.0M
A330neo-800 58.82 m 64 m 251 t 257 8150 nm US$259.9M
A330neo-900 63.66 m 64 m 251 t 287 7200 nm US$296.4M
787-9 63 m 60.17 m 254 t 290 7635 nm US$281.6M
A350-900 66.80 m 64.75 m 280 t 325 8100 nm US$317.4M
787-10 68.27 m 60.17 m 254 t 330 6430 nm US$325.8M
777X-8 69.8 m 71.8 m 351.5 t 365 8690 nm US$394.9M
A350-1000 73.79 m 64.75 m 316 t 366 8400 nm US$366.5M
777X-9 76.7 m 71.8 m 351.5 t 414 7525 nm US$425.8M
747-8 76.3 m 68.4 m 447.7 t 410 8000 nm US$402.9M
A380 72.72 m 79.75 m 575 t 575 8000 nm US$445.6M
Flight Global fleet forecasts 7,960 twin aisle deliveries for a $1,284 Bn value for the 2016-2035 period.[12] They predict the B787 taking 31% of the market share, followed by the A350 with 27% and the 777 with 21%, then the A330 and A380 each taking 7%.[13] In June 2017, The orderbook was for 1038 Airbus ({{#expr:1038/(1038+1514)*100round0}}%) and 1,514 Boeings ({{#expr:1514/(1038+1514)*100round0}}%).[14]
Capacity
MarketNorth Atlantic[15]Trans-pacific[16]
type 1H20061H201620052015
A310/DC10/MD11 3% 1% 3% -
A320/B737 1% 1% - -
A330 16% 26% 3% 10%
A340 10% 6% 11% 1%
A380 - 3% - 4%
B747 15% 9% 49% 10%
B757 6% 9% - -
B767 28% 19% 7% 7%
B777 21% 20% 27% 55%
B787 - 6% - 13%

Cargo capacity and range comparison

Type length span MTOWcapacity range list price (USD)
A320P2F[17] 37.6 m 35.8 m 78.0 t 21.0 t 2100 nmi converted
737-800BCF[21] 39.5 m 79.0 t 22.7 t 2000 nmi converted
A321P2F[17] 44.5 m 93.5 t 27.0 t 1900 nmi converted
767-300F[18]54.9 m 47.6 m 186.9 t 52.5 t 3260 nmi $203.7M
767-300BCF[18] 50.9 m 51.7 t 3300 nmi converted
A330-200P2F[19]58.8 m60.3 m233.0 t 59.0 t 4000 nmi converted
A330-200F[2] 70.0 t $237.0M
A330-300P2F[19]63.7 m 61.0 t 3600 nmi converted
777F[18] 64.8 m 347.8 t 102.0 t 4970 nmi $325.7M
747-8F[18] 76.3 m 68.4 m 447.7 t 137.7 t 4120 nmi $387.5M

Airbus A320 vs Boeing 737

In terms of sales, while the Boeing 737 Next Generation outsold the Airbus A320 family since its introduction in 1988, it is still lagging overall with 7,033 orders against 7,940 in January 2016. Airbus received 4,471 orders since the A320neo family launch in December 2010, while the 737 MAX got 3,072 from August 2011 till January 2016. In the same timeframe, the neo had 3,355 orders.[20] Through August, Airbus have a {{#expr:4796/8074*100round2}}% market share of the re-engined single aisle market, while Boeing had {{#expr:3278/8074*100round2}}%; Boeing has doubts on over-ordered A320 neos by new operators and expects to narrow the gap with replacements not already ordered.[21] In July 2017, Airbus still had sold 1,350 more A320neos than Boeing had sold 737 MAXs.[22]

In terms of deliveries, Boeing has shipped 10,444 aircraft of the 737 family since late 1967, with 8,918[23] of those deliveries since March 1988,[24] and has a further 4,763 on firm order as of December 2018. In comparison, Airbus has delivered 8,605 A320 series aircraft since their certification/first delivery in early 1988, with another 6,056 on firm order (as of December 2018).[25]

{{GraphChart|width=600|height=200|yAxisTitle=Deliveries|type=line|x=1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018|y1=16,58,58,119,111,71,64,56,72,127,168,222,241,257,236,233,233,289,339,367,386,402,401,421,455,493,490,491,545,558,626|y2=165,146,174,215,218,152,121,89,76,135,282,320,282,299,223,173,202,212,302,330,290,372,376,372,415,440,485,495,490,529,580
|y1Title=Airbus A320 family|y2Title=Boeing 737 series|colors=green,blue}}
  • {{legend|green|Airbus A320 family deliveries[25][26]}}
  • {{legend|blue|Boeing 737 series deliveries[27]}}

While Boeing ramp-up 737 monthly production from 47 in 2017 to 57 in 2019 and Airbus from 46 to 60, both consider accelerating further despite supplier strain.[28]

By September 2018, there were 7,251 A320 family ceo aircraft in service versus 6,757 737NGs, while Airbus should deliver 3,174 A320neos compared with 2,999 Boeing 737 MAX through 2022.

In its annual report, Air France cites a €149 million ($195 million) A380, a {{#expr:(1-195/403.9)*100round0}}% cut, while in an October 2011 financial release Doric Nimrod Air notes a $234 million for its A380 leased to Emirates.

Teal group's Richard Aboulafia notes that Boeing's pricing power for the 777-300ER was better when it was alone in its long-haul, large capacity twinjet market but this advantage dissipates with the A350-1000 coming.[85]

For Leeham's Scott Hamilton, small orders are content with 35-40% discount but large airlines sometimes attain 60% and customers with old ties with Boeing like American, Delta or Southwest get a Most-Favoured-Customer Clause guaranteeing them no other customer gets a lower price.

Wells Fargo indicates Southwest, the largest 737 customer with 577, got a unit price of $34.7 million for its 737 MAX order of 150 in December 2011, a 64 % discount.Ryanair got 53 % in September 2001 and claims to obtain at least the same on its last 175 orders.

The Airbus-Boeing WTO proceedings indicates EasyJet got a $19,4 million unit price on its A319 order for 120 in 2002, a 56% discount at the time, the same kind of rebate Lion Air got for its A320 order of 234 on 18 March 2013.[85]

Each sale includes an escalation rate covering the workforce and raw material costs increases and as acquisition cost represents 15% of the 20 year total cost of ownership, discussions also include the delivery date, fuel consumption guarantees, financial incentives, maintenance and training.

At Airbus, final price in large campaigns is validated by a committee comprising sales head John Leahy, program director Tom Williams, financial principal Harald Wilhelm and CEO Fabrice Brégier who has the final cut.[85]

Those discounts were presented again in Le Nouvel Observateur's Challenges.fr again with Ascend valuations in 2013:[74]

Model List price 2013 Market price Discount
Boeing 747-8 351.4 145.0 {{#expr:(351.4-145)/351.4*100round0}}%
Airbus A320-200 91.5 38.75 {{#expr:(91.5-38.75)/91.5*100round0}}%
Airbus A330-200 239.4 99.5 {{#expr:(239.4-99.5)/239.4*100round0}}%
Boeing 737-800 89.1 41.8 {{#expr:(89.1-41.8)/89.1*100round0}}%
Boeing 777-300ER 315.0 152.5 {{#expr:(315-152.5)/315*100round0}}%
Airbus A380 403.9 193.0 {{#expr:(403.9-193)/403.9*100round0}}%
Airbus A320neo 100.2 49.2 {{#expr:(100.2-49.2)/100.2*100round0}}%
Boeing 737 MAX-8 100.5 51.4 {{#expr:(100.5-51.4)/100.5*100round0}}%
Boeing 787-8 206.8 107.0 {{#expr:(206.8-107)/206.8*100round0}}%
Airbus A350-900 287.7 152.0 {{#expr:(287.7-152)/287.7*100round0}}%

In 2014, Airways News indicated discounted list prices for long haul liners :[75]

Model List price 2014 Market price Discount
Airbus A330-900neo 275.6 124.0 {{#expr:100-124/2.756round0}}%
Airbus A350-900 295.2 159.4 {{#expr:100-159.4/2.952round0}}%
Boeing 777-200LR 296.0 118.4 {{#expr:100-118.4/2.96round0}}%
Boeing 787-9 249.5 134.7 {{#expr:100-134.7/2.495round0}}%

On 24 December 2014, Transasia Airways announced a commitment to four A330-800neos, list price $241.7m, for $480m or $120m each.[76] At the end of 2015, the sale and leaseback of new Airbus A350-900 from GECAS to Finnair value them at €{{#expr:265/2}}M (${{#expr:265/.92/2round1}}M)[77]

In order to close the production gap between the B777 classic and the new 777X, Boeing is challenged by a $120m market price for the -300ERs. Competitive pressure from the Bombardier CSeries and E-Jet E2 lead Boeing to pursue the development of the 737 MAX-7 despite low sales,[78] and to sell the Boeing 737-700 at $22m to United Airlines, {{#expr:22/80.6*100round0}}% of the 2015 list price and well below what Embraer or Bombardier could offer for their aircraft.[79]

Moody’s Investors Service estimates Delta Air Lines paid $40 million each for its 37 A321ceo order on 29 April 2016, an "end-of-the-line model pricing" of {{#expr:40/114.9*100round0}}% of the $114.9 million list price.[80] Likewise, Air Caraïbes subsidiary French Blue received its A330-300 for $100 million in September 2016.[81]
May 2016 market prices[82]
Aircraft List ($m) Mkt Value ($m) Discount Seats Mkt/Seat
A380432.6236.545%544{{#expr:236500000/544round0}}
B777-300ER339.6154.854%368{{#expr:154800000/368round0}}
A350-900308.1150.051%325{{#expr:150000000/325round0}}
B787-9264.6142.846%290{{#expr:142800000/290round0}}
B787-8224.6117.148%242{{#expr:117100000/242round0}}
A330-300256.4109.557%277{{#expr:109500000/277round0}}
A330-200231.586.663%247{{#expr:86600000/247round0}}
A321114.952.554%185{{#expr:52500000/185round0}}
A320neo107.348.555%165{{#expr:48500000/165round0}}
B737-900ER101.948.153%174{{#expr:48100000/174round0}}
B737-80096.046.552%160{{#expr:46500000/160round0}}
A32098.044.455%150{{#expr:44400000/150round0}}
A31989.637.358%124{{#expr:37300000/124round0}}
B737-70080.635.356%128{{#expr:35300000/128round0}}

This appears in the manufacturer's accounting: in their annual reports, Boeing values its 5,700 airliners order book at $416 billion using the contractual prices while Airbus has a backlog of 6,900 worth €1,010 ($1,200) billion at catalog prices, but when updating to more stringent IFRS-15 rules, Credit Suisse estimates it will be revised to €500 billion from 945.[83]

Airbus will disclose its backlog value in its 2018 annual report at the latest.[84]

In January 2018, Airbus and Boeing raised their list prices by 2% and 4%, further obscuring pricing transparency as discount levels will rise and with the growing importance of aftermarket services, following the Power by the Hour engine maker model.[85]

In February 2018, Hawaiian Airlines cancelled its order for six Airbus A330-800s to replace them with Boeing 787-9s priced less than $100-115m, close to their production cost of $80-90m, while their normal sales price is around $125m.[86]

Production planning

Former Airbus executive John Leahy indicated that Airbus has overbooked orders in its backlog, just as Boeing does, and uses internal algorithms to anticipate defections in order to maintain steady production.[87]

Effect of competition on product plans

The A320 has been selected by 222 operators (Dec. 2008), among these several low-cost operators, gaining ground against the previously well established 737 in this sector; it has also been selected as a replacement for 727s and aging 737s by many full-service airlines such as Star Alliance members United Airlines, Air Canada and Lufthansa. After dominating the very large aircraft market for four decades, the Boeing 747 now faces a challenge from the A380. In response, Boeing now offer the stretched and updated 747-8, with greater capacity, fuel efficiency, and longer range. Frequent delays to the Airbus A380 program caused several customers to consider cancelling their orders in favour of the refreshed 747-8.[88] However, all orders for the A380F freight variant have been cancelled. To date, Boeing has secured orders for 78 747-8F and 51 747-8I aircraft with first deliveries originally scheduled for 2011 and 2012 as the 747-8I is only in service with Lufthansa, while Airbus has orders for 318 A380s, the first of which entered service in 2007 and has delivered a total of 152 to customers (as of December 31, 2014).

Several Boeing projects were pursued and then cancelled, for example the Sonic Cruiser. Boeing's current platform for fleet rejuvenation is the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, which uses technology from the Sonic Cruiser concept.

Boeing initially ruled out producing a re-engined version of its 737 to compete with the Airbus A320neo family launch planned for 2015, believing airlines would be looking towards the Boeing Y1 and a 30% fuel saving, instead of paying 10% more for fuel efficiency gains of only a few percent. Industry sources believe that the 737's design makes re-engining considerably more expensive for Boeing than it was for the Airbus A320. However, there did prove to be considerable demand. Southwest Airlines, who use the 737 for their entire fleet (680 in service or on order), said they were not prepared to wait 20 years or more for a new 737 model and threatened to convert to Airbus.[89] Boeing eventually bowed to airline pressure and in 2011 approved the 737 MAX project, scheduled for first delivery in 2017.

Orders and deliveries

It took Boeing 42 years and 1 month to deliver its 10,000th 7series aircraft (October 1958-November 2000) and, 42 years and 5 months for Airbus to achieve the same milestone (May 1974-October 2016).[90] Boeing deliveries considerably exceeded that of Airbus throughout the 1980s. In the 1990s, this lead narrowed significantly but Boeing remained ahead of Airbus. In the 2000s, Airbus assumed the lead in narrow-body aircraft. By 2010, little difference remained between Airbus and Boeing in both the wide-body or narrow-body categories or the range on offer.

Orders
2019201820172016201520142013201220112010200920082007200620052004200320022001200019991998199719961995199419931992199119901989
Airbus -997471109}}731}}1080}}1456}}1503}}8331419}}574}}281}}777}}13417901055}}370}}284}}300}}375}}520476}}556460326106125}}138136101404421
Boeing48893}}912 668768143213551203}}8055301426621413}}1044}}1002272239251314588}}355606}}532}}664}}379}}112220}}230}}240}}456}}563}}
Sources:
[https://www.airbus.com/aircraft/market/orders-deliveries.html Airbus Orders & Deliveries to 28 February, 2019]
Boeing orders to 28 February, 2019
Deliveries
2019201820172016201520142013201220112010200920082007200620052004200320022001200019991998199719961995199419931992199119901989
Airbus88800718688635629626588534}}510}}498}}483}}453}}434}}378}}320}}305}}30332531129422918212612412313815716395105
Boeing95806}}763}} 748}}762}}723}}648}}601}}477462481375441398290285281381}}527}}491}}620}}563}}346}}219}}207}}272}}330}}446}}435}}385}}491}}
Sources:
[https://www.airbus.com/aircraft/market/orders-deliveries.html Airbus Orders & Deliveries to 28 February, 2019]
Boeing deliveries to 28 February, 2019

The former McDonnell Douglas MD-80, the MD-90 and the MD-11 are included in Boeing deliveries since MD's August 1997 merger with Boeing.

{{Orders and deliveries of Airbus and Boeing}}
Orders and Deliveries by Product
ManufacturerClassProduct2018Historical Deliveries *
OrdersDeliveriesBacklog
Airbus [91]Narrow-body A220 135 20 480 57
A320 541 626 6056 8605
Wide-bodyA300 561
A310 255
A33027 49 295 1439
A340 377
A350 40 93 659 235
A380 4 12 87 234
Total 747 800 7577 11763
Boeing [92]Narrow-body707 1010
717 155
727 1831
737 675 580 4763 10444
757 1049
Wide-body747 18 6 24 1548
767 40 27 111 1133
777 51 48 431 1582
787 109 145 622 781
Total 893 806 5951 19533
* Historical deliveries are all jet airliners from Boeing since 1958 and Airbus since 1974 until 31 December 2018
Deliveries by year and product (through December 31, 2018)
707717727737747757767777787Boeing[93]A220A300A310A320A330A340A350A380Airbus
197421 91552218944
19757 91512117088
19769 6141271381313
19778 6725201201515
197813 11840322031515
19796 13677672862626
19803 13192732993939
19812 94108532573838
19828 2695262201774646
19838 1182222555203191736
19848 867161829146192948
19853 115243625203162642
19864 141353527242101929
19879 161234037270112132
198816524485329017281661
19895 146455137284242358105
19904 17470776038519185895
1991142156480624352519119163
19925 2186199634462224111157
1993152567151330222271122138
19941 12140694127223264925123
199589 25433713207172563019124
199676 26424332219142721028126
199713539464259321621271433182
1998282535447745101311682324229
1999123204767448357382224420294
2000322822545445548382414319311
20014929931454061525112573522325
2002202232729354738192364216303
2003121731914243928182333133305
20041220215119 36285122334728320
200513212132 104029092895624378
20065 30214126539893396224434
2007330161283441636768111453
2008290141061375386721312483
20093728 1388481402761010498
2010376127446240187418510
20113729 20733 4774218726534
201241531268346601455101230588
20134402421986564849310825626
201448519699114723490108130629
20154951816981357624911031427635
201649091399137748545664928688
2017529141074136763558677815718
201858062748145806 20626499312800
2019
Total
(All-time)		1010155183110444154810491133158278119533 575612558605143937723523411763
707717727737747757767777787 A220A300A310A320A330A340A350A380
Deliveries by region and fuselage type (through December 31, 2016)
AirlinerEuropeNorth AmericaLatin America & CaribbeanAsia PacificMiddle EastAfricaLeasing CompaniesVIP-Gov-OthersTotal
Narrow-bodyWide-bodyNarrow-bodyWide-bodyNarrow-bodyWide-bodyNarrow-bodyWide-bodyNarrow-bodyWide-bodyNarrow-bodyWide-bodyNarrow-bodyWide-bodyNarrow-bodyWide-body
70713958221733731 1271010
717 9 125 10 11155
727 210 1301 89 106 36 54 25 101831
737 Original 284 455 60 138 44 94 34 351144
737 Classic 457 691 18 276 27 513 61988
737NG1163160921314048814313012826203
737 MAX
A320ceo16391029521173420710320041167353
A320neo 18 4 4 24 1868
757 172 634 83 10 7 137 61049
767115447602642819 149 141096
A300 101 179 9 187 32 28 22 3561
A310 114 39 4 48 27 13 7 3255
777194211 1253824630207221460
777X
A330ceo203 904145811438339 401323
A330neo
A340 179 10 4 80 35 22 33 14377
787677231198482950 5500
A350 8 7 2413 1264
747 366 280 13 637 63 31 14 141418
747-8 43 1047 10110
A380 36 64107207
Total409114266430133892618138482545422713459210404383358212528172

Boeing [94]

Airbus [95]

Deliveries by decade and fuselage type (through Dec 31, 2018)
Narrow-bodyWide-bodyBoeing[93]Narrow-bodyWide-bodyAirbusRatio B:A
1980s1747 6242371744024764.98:1
1990s2466 12323698106856316312.27:1
2000s2974 9663940298382738101.03:1
2010s4182180859904500122857281.05:1
Total144895044195338662310111763
Commercial airliners still in operation
707717727737747757767777787Boeing[93]A220A300A310A320A330A340A350A380AirbusRatio B:A
20066815562043289899968625758593408199276141830640922.09:1
200763155561458398510008806408867392193309548133044911.97:1
200861154500476195598087371489983871943395533330448431.86:1
2009581424424928947970864780913137618837376073451652691.73:1
2010391473985153915945863858931834816040926753423056471.65:1
2011101302505177736898837924896229612143927663325059571.50:1
201221431695357690860838101715909126210248038483127664031.42:1
20131481095458627855821109468918023484517092729810668191.35:1
201415487578258581279511881639564216715632102026613673411.30:1
2015136696135571738765126528699652076260501095227516778131.28:1
201615464651251568874213244231042221047651011541962919383391.25:1
201715457686448968974413875541093821137696512141769221289071.23:1
201814844731046266674214166751146339212317506126515918522396201.19:1
707717727737747757767777787A220A300A310A320A330A340A350A380
World Airliner Census 2006 [96] 2007 [97] 2008 [98] 2009 [99] 2010 [100][101] 2011 [102] 2012 [103] 2013 [104] 2014 [105][106] 2015 [107] 2016[108][109]2017[110][111] 2018[112]

Controversies

Subsidies

Boeing has continually protested over launch aid in the form of credits to Airbus, while Airbus has argued that Boeing receives illegal subsidies through military and research contracts and tax breaks.[113]

In July 2004, Harry Stonecipher (then CEO of Boeing) accused Airbus of abusing a 1992 bilateral EU-US agreement regarding large civil aircraft support from governments. Airbus is given reimbursable launch investment (RLI, called "launch aid" by the U.S.) from European governments with the money being paid back with interest, plus indefinite royalties if the aircraft is a commercial success.[114] Airbus contends that this system is fully compliant with the 1992 agreement and WTO rules. The agreement allows up to 33 per cent of the program cost to be met through government loans which are to be fully repaid within 17 years with interest and royalties. These loans are held at a minimum interest rate equal to the cost of government borrowing plus 0.25%, which would be below market rates available to Airbus without government support.[115] Airbus claims that since the signing of the EU-U.S. agreement in 1992, it has repaid European governments more than U.S.$6.7 billion and that this is 40% more than it has received.

Airbus argues that pork barrel military contracts awarded to Boeing (the second largest U.S. defence contractor) are in effect a form of subsidy (see the KC-X program). The U.S. government support of technology development via NASA also provides support to Boeing. In its recent products such as the 787, Boeing has also received support from local and state governments.[116] Airbus's parent, EADS, itself is a military contractor, and is paid to develop and build projects such as the Airbus A400M transport and various other military aircraft.[117]

In January 2005, European Union and United States trade representatives Peter Mandelson and Robert Zoellick agreed to talks aimed at resolving the increasing tensions. These talks were not successful, with the dispute becoming more acrimonious rather than approaching a settlement.

World Trade Organization litigation

{{Quote box|align=right|width=30%|quote="We remain united in our determination that this dispute shall not affect our cooperation on wider bilateral and multilateral trade issues. We have worked together well so far, and intend to continue to do so."|source=Joint EU-US statement[118]}}

On 31 May 2005 the United States filed a case against the European Union for providing allegedly illegal subsidies to Airbus. Twenty-four hours later the European Union filed a complaint against the United States protesting support for Boeing.[119]

Increased tensions, due to the support for the Airbus A380, escalated toward a potential trade war as the launch of the Airbus A350 neared. Airbus preferred the A350 program to be launched with the help of state loans covering a third of the development costs, although it stated it will launch without these loans if required. The A350 will compete with Boeing's most successful project in recent years, the 787 Dreamliner. EU trade officials questioned the nature of the funding provided by NASA, the Department of Defense, and in particular the form of R&D contracts that benefit Boeing; as well as funding from US states such as Washington, Kansas, and Illinois, for the development and launch of Boeing aircraft, in particular the 787.[120] An interim report of the WTO investigation into the claims made by both sides was made in September 2009.[121]

In March 2010, the WTO ruled that European governments unfairly financed Airbus.[122] In September 2010, a preliminary report of the WTO found unfair Boeing payments broke WTO rules and should be withdrawn.[123] In two separate findings issued in May 2011, the WTO found, firstly, that the US defence budget and NASA research grants could not be used as vehicles to subsidise the civilian aerospace industry and that Boeing must repay $5.3 billion of illegal subsidies.[124] Secondly, the WTO Appellate Body partly overturned an earlier ruling that European Government launch aid constituted unfair subsidy, agreeing with the point of principle that the support was not aimed at boosting exports and some forms of public-private partnership could continue. Part of the $18bn in low interest loans received would have to be repaid eventually; however, there was no immediate need for it to be repaid and the exact value to be repaid would be set at a future date.[125] Both parties claimed victory in what was the world's largest trade dispute.[126][127][128]

On 1 December 2011 Airbus reported that it had fulfilled its obligations under the WTO findings and called upon Boeing to do likewise in the coming year.[129] The United States did not agree and had already begun complaint procedures prior to December, stating the EU had failed to comply with the DSB's recommendations and rulings, and requesting authorisation by the DSB to take countermeasures under Article 22 of the DSU and Article 7.9 of the SCM Agreement. The European Union requested the matter be referred to arbitration under Article 22.6 of the DSU. The DSB agreed that the matter raised by the European Union in its statement at that meeting be referred to arbitration as required by Article 22.6 of the DSU however on 19 January 2012 the US and EU jointly agreed to withdraw their request for arbitration.[130]

On 12 March 2012 the appellate body of the WTO released its findings confirming the illegality of subsidies to Boeing whilst confirming the legality of repayable loans made to Airbus. The WTO stated that Boeing had received at least $5.3 billion in illegal cash subsidies at an estimated cost to Airbus of $45 billion. A further $2 billion in state and local subsidies that Boeing is set to receive have also been declared illegal. Boeing and the US government were given six months to change the way government support for Boeing is handled.[131] At the DSB meeting on 13 April 2012, the United States informed the DSB that it intended to implement the DSB recommendations and rulings in a manner that respects its WTO obligations and within the time-frame established in Article 7.9 of the SCM Agreement. The European Union welcomed the US intention and noted that the 6-month period stipulated in Article 7.9 of the SCM Agreement would expire on 23 September 2012. On 24 April 2012, the European Union and the United States informed the DSB of Agreed Procedures under Articles 21 and 22 of the DSU and Article 7 of the SCM Agreement.[132]

On 25 September 2012 the EU requested discussions with the USA, because of the alleged non compliance of the US and Boeing with the WTO ruling of 12 March 2012. On 27 September 2012 the EU requested the WTO to approve EU countermeasures against USA's subsidy of Boeing. The WTO approved creating a panel to rule on the disputed compliance this was initially to rule in 2014 but is not now expected to complete its work before 2016 due to the complexity of the case. The EU wants permission to place trade sanctions of up to 12 billion US$ annually against the USA. The EU believes this amount represents the damage the illegal subsidies of Boeing cause to the EU.[133][134]

On 19 December 2014 the EU requested WTO mediated consultations with the US over the tax incentives given by the state of Washington to large civil aircraft manufacturers which they believed violated the earlier WTO ruling, on 22 April 2015 at the request of the EU a WTO panel was set up to rule on the complaint.[135] The tax incentives given by the state of Washington and believed to be the largest in US history[136] surpassing the previous record of $5.6bn over 30 years awarded by the state of New York to the aluminum producer Alcoa in 2007. The $8.7bn over 40 years incentive to Boeing to manufacture the 777X in the state includes $4.2bn from a 40% reduction in business taxes, £3.5bn in tax credits for the firm, a $562m tax credit on property and buildings belonging to Boeing, a $242m sales tax exemption for buying computers and $8m to train 1000 workers,[137] Airbus alleges this is larger than the budgeted cost of Boeing's 777X development program and the EU argues amounts to an entire publicly funded free aircraft program for Boeing, the legislation was an extension of the duration of a tax break program given to Boeing for Dreamliner development that had already been ruled illegal by the WTO in 2012.[138] Boeing defends the allegation by arguing the subsidies are available to anyone however for an aircraft to qualify for the tax breaks a company must manufacture aircraft wings and perform all final assembly for an aircraft model or variant exclusively in the state.[139]

In September 2016, the WTO found that Airbus did not remedy the harm to Boeing from illegal subsidies, and the EU immediately appealed for a final decision in late spring 2018.

The U.S. will pursue penalties if an agreement can’t be reached but is willing to reach a settlement with the European Union.[143]

See also

{{Portal|Airbus|Boeing}}
  • Airbus Corporate Jets
  • Boeing Commercial Airplanes
  • Competition in the Regional jet market
  • List of civil aircraft

Notes

1. ^Airlines Industry Profile: United States, Datamonitor, November 2008, pp. 13–14
2. ^1 2 {{cite web |url= https://www.airbus.com/content/dam/corporate-topics/publications/backgrounders/Airbus-Family-Figures-booklet.pdf |title= Family figures |publisher= Airbus |date= July 2018}}
3. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.boeing.com/commercial/737max#/technical-specs |publisher= Boeing |title= 737 MAX}}
4. ^1 {{cite press release |url= http://www.airbus.com/newsroom/press-releases/en/2018/01/airbus-2018-price-list-press-release.html |title= Airbus 2018 Price List |publisher= Airbus |date= 15 January 2018}}
5. ^1 {{cite web |title= About Boeing Commercial Airplanes: Prices |url= http://www.boeing.com/company/about-bca/#/prices |publisher= Boeing}}
6. ^{{cite web |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180203051357/http://commercialaircraft.bombardier.com/en/media/list-prices---commercial-aircraft---bombardier.html |title= List Prices - Commercial Aircraft |publisher= Bombardier Aerospace |date= January 2017 }}
7. ^{{cite news |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/analysis-flight-fleet-forecasts-single-aisle-outlo-428536/ |title= Flight Fleet Forecast's single-aisle outlook 2016-2035 |work= Flight Global |date= 16 August 2016}}
8. ^{{cite news |url= https://leehamnews.com/2017/02/20/pontifications-boeings-long-term-message-doesnt-resonate/ |title= Pontifications: Boeing's long-term message doesn't resonate |date= February 20, 2017 |work= Leeham Co.|accessdate=14 January 2018}}
9. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.boeing.com/commercial/787/by-design |publisher= Boeing |title= 787 by design}}
10. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.boeing.com/commercial/777x/by-design |publisher= Boeing |title= 777X by design }}
11. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747/ |publisher= Boeing |title= 747-8}}
12. ^{{cite news |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/asset/2509 |title= Flight Fleet Forecast Summary |work= Flight Global |date= 2016}}
13. ^{{cite news |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/insight-from-flightglobal-ascend-widebody-fleet-fo-429941/ |title= Ascend widebody fleet forecast |date= 13 October 2016 |work= Flight Global}}
14. ^{{cite news |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/asset/17061 |title= wide boys |date= June 2017 |work= Flight Global}}
15. ^{{cite web |url= https://centreforaviation.com/analysis/747-400-fleet-profile-air-france-cathay-pacific-and-saudia-retire-passenger-747-fleets-in-2016-261285 |title= 747-400 fleet profile: Air France, Cathay Pacific and Saudia retire passenger 747 fleets in 2016 |publisher= CAPA - Centre for Aviation |date= 18 January 2016}}
16. ^{{cite web |url= http://centreforaviation.com/analysis/singapore-airlines-to-resume-non-stop-us-services-with-a350-900-ulr-a-strategic-imperative-248462 |title= Singapore Airlines to resume non-stop US services with A350-900ULR: a strategic imperative |publisher= CAPA - Centre for Aviation |date= 15 October 2015}}
17. ^1 {{cite web |url= http://www.airbus.com/presscentre/pressreleases/press-release-detail/detail/efw-st-aerospace-and-airbus-to-launch-a320a321p2f-freighter-conversion-programme/ |title= EFW, ST Aerospace and Airbus to launch A320/A321P2F freighter conversion programme |publisher= Airbus |date= 17 June 2015 |accessdate= 16 May 2017}}
18. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite web |title= Freighters |url= http://www.boeing.com/commercial/freighters/ |publisher= Boeing |accessdate= 13 May 2017}}
19. ^1 {{cite web |url= http://www.airbus.com/aircraftfamilies/freighter/a330p2f/ |title= A330P2F Passenger to Freighter |publisher= Airbus |accessdate= 16 May 2017}}
20. ^{{cite web |url= http://airwaysnews.com/blog/2016/01/26/a320neo-vs-737-max-pt-i/ |title= ANALYSIS: A320neo vs. 737 MAX: Airbus is Leading (Slightly) – Part I |date= January 27, 2016 |publisher= Airways News}}
21. ^{{cite news |url= https://leehamnews.com/2016/09/22/boeing-positioned-narrow-market-share-gap/ |title= Boeing positioned to narrow market share gap |date= Sep 22, 2016 |work= Leeham Co.}}
22. ^{{cite web |url= https://airinsight.com/big-duopoly-race/ |title= The Big Duopoly Race |date= July 10, 2017 |publisher= Airinsight |author= Addison Schonland}}
23. ^{{cite web |title=Boeing Orders & Deliveries |url=http://www.boeing.com/commercial/#/orders-deliveries |website=Boeing.com |publisher=Boeing Press Calculations |accessdate=13 January 2019 |archiveurl=http://active.boeing.com/commercial/orders/DownloadToExcel.cfm?RequestTimeout=5000&RequestTimeout=100000&report=userDefinedReports&optReportType=Delivery&optSort=Model&optDateRange=Specific&cboStartMonth=04&cboStartYear=1988&cboEndMonth=12&cboEndYear=2018&optCustInfo=Customer&cboCustomerName=AllCustomers&cboCountryName=&cboRegionName=&optModelInfo=AllModels&cboCurrentModelName=&cboAllModelName=737&cboAllMinorModelName= |archivedate=31 December 2018}}
24. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.boeing.com/commercial/#/orders-deliveries|title= Orders and Deliveries search page |publisher=Boeing |date=December 31, 2019 |accessdate=January 14, 2019}}
25. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.airbus.com/no_cache/company/market/orders-deliveries|title=Orders & deliveries viewer|publisher=Airbus|accessdate=11 January 2019|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121230235718/http://www.airbus.com/no_cache/company/market/orders-deliveries/|archivedate=December 31, 2012|df=}}
26. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.airbus.com/fileadmin/media_gallery/files/reports_results_reviews/Summary_Historial_Orders_Deliveries_1974-2009.xls |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223185526/http://www.airbus.com/fileadmin/media_gallery/files/reports_results_reviews/Summary_Historial_Orders_Deliveries_1974-2009.xls |archivedate=December 23, 2010 |title = Historical Orders and Deliveries 1974–2009 |work=Airbus S.A.S. |date=January 2010 |format=Microsoft Excel |accessdate=10 December 2012}}
27. ^{{cite web |url=http://active.boeing.com/commercial/orders/displaystandardreport.cfm?&optReportType=HistAnnDel |title= Historical Deliveries |publisher=Boeing |date= December 2015 |accessdate=February 5, 2016}}
28. ^{{cite news |url= http://aviationweek.com/commercial-aviation/airbus-and-boeing-consider-higher-narrowbody-production |title= Airbus And Boeing Consider Higher Narrowbody Production |date= Feb 9, 2018 |author= Jens Flottau |magazine= Aviation Week & Space Technology}}
29. ^-->Airbus sold well the A320 to low-cost startups and offering a choice of engines could make them more attractive to airlines and lessors than the single sourced 737, but CFM engines are extremely reliable.The six month head-start of the A320neo allowed Airbus to rack up 1,000 orders before Boeing announced the MAX.The A321 has outsold the 737-900 three to one, as the A321neo is again dominating the 737-9 MAX, to be joined by the 737-10 MAX.{{cite news |url= http://aviationweek.com/asset-utilization/how-a320-overtook-737-and-mro-implications |title= How The A320 Overtook The 737, And MRO Implications |date= Aug 29, 2018 |author= Alex Derber |work= Aviation Week Network}}
30. ^{{cite news |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/iag-lauds-ownership-cost-benefit-of-level-a330s-442905/ |title= IAG lauds ownership-cost benefit of Level A330s |date= 6 Nov 2017 |author= David Kaminski Morrow |work= Flightglobal }}
31. ^{{cite news |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/data-snapshot-airbus-and-boeing-are-head-to-head-in-445593/ |title= Airbus and Boeing are head-to-head in the widebody sector |date= 6 Feb 2018 |work= Flightglobal}}
32. ^-->Singapore Airlines planned to reintroduce the world’s longest flight between Singapore and New York (8,285 nmi) in 2018 with an A350-900 ULR, Qantas hopes to fly from Sydney to New York (8,650 nmi) or London (9,200 nmi) within four years for the Project Sunrise and Air New Zealand wish to operate to the U.S. East Coast: Auckland and New York are 7,670 nmi apart.{{cite news |url= http://aviationweek.com/commercial-aviation/airbus-boeing-size-asia-pacific-carrier-opportunities |title= Airbus, Boeing Size Asia-Pacific Carrier Opportunities |date= May 17, 2018 |author= Adrian Schofield |work= Aviation Week & Space Technology}}
33. ^{{cite news |title=A350-900ULR: Singapore Airlines could be the sole customer |url=https://centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/a350-900ulr-singapore-airlines-could-be-the-sole-customer-431110 |accessdate=12 September 2018 |work=CAPA - Centre for Aviation |date=11 August 2018 |language=en}}
34. ^{{Cite news|title=Boeing, partners expected to scrap Super-Jet study|work=Los Angeles Times|date=10 July 1995|url= http://articles.latimes.com/1995-07-10/business/fi-22333_1_jumbo-jet|accessdate=30 December 2011}}
35. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/747-8_background.html |title=Boeing 747-8 Family background |publisher=boeing.com |date=2005-11-14 |accessdate=2011-05-21}}
36. ^{{Cite news |title=SIA's Chew: A380 pleases, Virgin Atlantic disappoints |publisher=ATW Online |date=13 December 2007 |url=http://www.atwonline.com/news/story.html?storyID=11132 |accessdate=13 December 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215175343/http://www.atwonline.com/news/story.html?storyID=11132 |archivedate=15 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |df= }}
37. ^{{cite web|last=Flottau|first=Jens|title=Emirates A350-1000 Order 'In Limbo'|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/Article.aspx?id=/article-xml/awx_11_21_2012_p0-519980.xml|publisher=Aviation Week|accessdate=22 November 2012|date=21 November 2012|quote=Clark points out that "the faster you fly [the A380], the more fuel-efficient she gets; when you fly at [Mach] 0.86 she is better than at 0.83."}}
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118. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.defense-aerospace.com/article-view/feature/57874/analysis:-us-reopens-aircraft-subsidy-dispute.html |publisher=Defense Aerospace |date=31 May 2005 |title=EU, US face off at WTO in aircraft spat}}
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125. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-13443055 |title=BBC News: WTO Airbus ruling leaves both sides claiming victory |publisher=bbc.co.uk |date=2011-04-19 |accessdate=2011-05-21}}
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130. ^{{cite web|title=European Communities — Measures Affecting Trade in Large Civil Aircraft|url=http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds316_e.htm}}
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136. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/govbeat/wp/2013/11/12/washington-just-awarded-the-largest-state-tax-subsidy-in-u-s-history/|title=Washington just awarded the largest state tax subsidy in U.S. history|author=Reid Wilson|date=12 November 2013|work=Washington Post}}
137. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303722104579242612164575226|title=Boeing Holds Bake-Off for Biggest Tax Breaks|author=Jon Ostrower|date=10 December 2013|work=WSJ}}
138. ^{{cite web|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/05/16/uk-trade-aircraft-subsidies-idUKKBN0DW1GL20140516|title=Exclusive: EU may challenge $8.7 billion U.S. tax breaks in Boeing-Airbus trade dispute - sources|work=Reuters UK}}
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140. ^-->Boeing expect the 2016 decision will be largely maintained with sanctions between $10 to $15 billion, which could be levied by punitive tariffs by the U.S. government, but the EU would retaliate strongly.The EU case against Boeing filed as a countersuit lags the U.S. case and the decision on Boeing’s appeal won’t come out until late in 2018 or even in 2019.{{cite news |url= https://www.seattletimes.com/business/boeing-aerospace/boeings-biggest-trade-fight-could-spark-a-u-s-confrontation-with-europe/ |title= Boeing’s biggest trade fight could spark a U.S. confrontation with Europe |date= February 10, 2018 |author= Dominic Gates |newspaper= The Seattle Times}}
141. ^{{cite news |url= https://leehamnews.com/2018/02/14/next-round-airbus-boeing-wto-battle-nears/ |title= Next round in Airbus-Boeing WTO battle nears |date= Feb 14, 2018 |work= Leeham}}
142. ^-->Boeing claimed victory but Airbus countered it is thin with 94% of the complaints rejected, as launch aids are legal but at market interest rates, not lower: violations will be corrected.US tariffs, probably on other industries, may take up to 18 months to get WTO approval, but EU could retaliate over Washington State 787 subsidies and tax breaks for the 777X.{{cite news |url= https://leehamnews.com/2018/05/15/wto/ |title= WTO issues ruling on EU appeal in Airbus-Boeing complaint |date= May 15, 2018 |work= Leeham News}}
143. ^{{cite news |url= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-05-28/u-s-is-said-to-open-door-to-talks-with-eu-on-airbus-settlement |title= U.S. Is Said to Open Door to Talks With EU on Airbus Settlement |author= Bryce Baschuk and Benjamin D Katz |date= 28 May 2018 |agency= Bloomberg}}

References

{{Reflist}}
Bibliography
  • {{Citation|last=Newhouse|first=John|title=Boeing versus Airbus|publisher=Vintage Books|year=2007|location=USA|isbn=978-1-4000-7872-1}}

External links

  • Official Airbus website
  • Official Boeing website
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20040612115251/http://www.airbusmilitary.com/ Official Airbus Military website]
  • Complete production lists of all Airbus models
  • BBC Q&A: Boeing and Airbus
{{EADS}}{{Boeing}}{{Airbus aircraft}}{{Boeing airliners}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Competition Between Airbus And Boeing}}

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