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词条 Cot–caught merger
释义

  1. Overview

  2. North American English

     Resistance  Origin 

  3. England

  4. Scotland

  5. See also

  6. References

  7. Bibliography

  8. External links

{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}{{Short description|English sound change causing "cot" and "caught" to be pronounced the same}}{{DISPLAYTITLE:Cot–caught merger}}{{IPA notice}}

The cot–caught merger (also known as the low back merger or the {{sc2|LOT–THOUGHT}} merger) is a phonemic merger, occurring in some dialects of the English language, between the phonemes that are conventionally represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet as {{IPAc-en|ɔː}} (which is usually spelled with au, aw, al or ough as in caught and hawk) and {{IPAc-en|ɒ}} (which is usually spelled with o as in cot and hock). In varieties in which the merger has taken place, including a few in the British Isles and many in North America, what were historically two separate phonemes have fallen together into a single sound, so that caught and cot, as well as several other pairs of words, are pronounced identically.

In most North American varieties this merger occurs along with the father–bother merger, leading to a loss of distinction between {{IPAc-en|ɔː}} in caught, {{IPAc-en|ɒ}} in cot and {{IPAc-en|ɑː}} in father.

Overview

{{IPA vowels|class=floatright}}

The shift causes the vowel sound in words like cot, nod and stock and the vowel sound in words like caught, gnawed and stalk to merge into a single phoneme; therefore the pairs cot and caught, stock and stalk, nod and gnawed become perfect homophones, and shock and talk, for example, become perfect rhymes. The cot–caught merger is completed in the following dialects:

  • Some dialects within the British Isles:
    • All Scottish English accents, towards {{IPAblink|ɔ|audio=y}}[1]
    • Irish English broad and traditional accents, including:
    • Some northern Ulster English[1] including in conservative mid Ulster English towards {{IPAblink|ä|audio=y}} and in Ulster Scots English towards {{IPAblink|ɔ|audio=y}}[3]
    • Potentially, the Northern English of England, particularly its extreme northernmost varieties in Cumbria and Northumberland, towards {{IPA|[ɔ~ɒ]}}[2]
  • Many North American English accents:
    • Several accents of U.S. English, including:[5]
    • Pittsburgh English, towards {{IPA|[ɒː~ɔː]}}[3]
    • All New England English towards {{IPA|[ɑː~ɒː]}} (in Boston and Eastern New England, particularly towards {{IPAblink|ɒː|audio=y}}), except in Rhode Island and southern Connecticut[4]
    • All Western American English[4]
    • Cajun English towards {{IPAblink|äː|audio=y}}.[5]
    • Nearly all Canadian English, including:[6]
    • Standard Canadian English towards {{IPAblink|ɒː|audio=y}}
    • Maritimer and Newfoundland English, towards {{IPA|[ɑː~äː]}}
  • Some Singaporean English[7]
Homophonous pairs
/ɒ/ or {{IPA|/ɑː/ (written a, o, ol)/ɔː/ (written au, aw, al, ough) IPA (using [ɒ] for the merged vowel) Notes
ah awe ɒː}} With father-bother merger.
bobble bauble ˈbɒbəl}}
bock balk ˈbɒk}}
body bawdy ˈbɒdi}}
bon bawn ˈbɒn}}
bot bought ˈbɒt}}
box balks ˈbɒks}}
chock chalk ˈtʃɒk}}
clod Claude ˈklɒd}}
clod clawed ˈklɒd}}
cock caulk ˈkɒk}}
cod cawed ˈkɒd}}
coddle caudle ˈkɒdəl}}
collar caller ˈkɒlə(r)}}
cot caught ˈkɒt}}
doddle dawdle ˈdɒdəl}}
dog dawg ˈdɒɡ}} dawg is a dialectal word arising from dog.
don dawn, Dawn ˈdɒn}}
dotter daughter ˈdɒtə(r)}}
fond fawned ˈfɒnd}}
fox Fawkes ˈfɒks}}
frot fraught ˈfrɒt}}
god gaud ˈɡɒd}}
god gawd ˈɡɒd}} gawd is a dialectal word arising from god.
hock hawk ˈhɒk}}
holler hauler ˈhɒlə(r)}}
hottie haughty ˈhɒti}}
hough hawk ˈhɒk}}
knot naught ˈnɒt}}
knot nought ˈnɒt}}
knotty naughty ˈnɒti}}
la law ˈlɑː}} With father-bother merger.
mod Maud, Maude ˈmɒd}}
Moll mall ˈmɒl}}
Moll maul ˈmɒl}}
nod gnawed ˈnɒd}}
not naught ˈnɒt}}
not nought ˈnɒt}}
odd awed ˈɒd}}
on awn ˈɒn}} Without lot-cloth split.
Otto auto ˈɒtoʊ}}
Oz awes ˈɒz}}
Pa paw ˈpɑː}} With father-bother merger.
Pa's pause ˈpɑːz}} With father-bother merger.
Pa's paws ˈpɑːz}} With father-bother merger.
pod pawed ˈpɒd}}
pol Paul ˈpɒl}}
pol pall ˈpɒl}}
pol pawl ˈpɒl}}
Poll Paul ˈpɒl}}
Poll pall ˈpɒl}}
Poll pawl ˈpɒl}}
Polly Paulie, Pauly ˈpɒli}}
poly Paulie, Pauly ˈpɒli}}
pond pawned ˈpɒnd}}
popper pauper ˈpɒpə(r)}}
poz pause ˈpɒz}}
poz paws ˈpɒz}}
respond respawned rɪˈspɒnd}}
Rolly Raleigh ˈrɒli}}
rot wrought ˈrɒt}}
shah shaw ˈʃɑː}} With father-bother merger.
shone Sean ˈʃɒn}}/ʃoʊn/}}
shone Shawn ˈʃɒn}}/ʃoʊn/}}
slotter slaughter ˈslɒtə(r)}}
sod sawed ˈsɒd}}
Sol Saul ˈsɒl}}
squalor squaller ˈskwɒlə(r)}}
stock stalk ˈstɒk}}
tock talk ˈtɒk}}
tot taught ˈtɒt}}
tot taut ˈtɒt}}
tox talks ˈtɒks}}
von Vaughan ˈvɒn}}
wok walk ˈwɒk}}
yon yawn ˈjɒn}}

North American English

{{listen
| type = speech
| header = Cot and caught in American English
| filename = En-us-cot.ogg
| title = Merged: {{IPA|[kɑːt]}} for cot
| description =
| filename2 = En-us-caught.ogg
| title2 = Merged: {{IPA|[kɑːt]}} for caught
| description2 =
| filename3 = En-us-inlandnorth-cot.ogg
| title3 = Not merged: {{IPA|[käːt]}} for cot
| description3 =
| filename4 = En-us-inlandnorth-caught.ogg
| title4 = Not merged: {{IPA|[kɒːt]}} for caught
| description4 =
}}

Nowhere is the shift more complex than in North American English. The presence of the merger and its absence are both found in many different regions of the North American continent, where it has been studied in greatest depth, and in both urban and rural environments. The symbols traditionally used to transcribe the vowels in the words cot and caught as spoken in American English are {{IPA|/ɑː/}} and {{IPA|/ɔː/}}, respectively (though often without the length marks: {{IPA|/ɑ, ɔ/}}), although their precise phonetic values may vary, as does the phonetic value of the merged vowel in the regions where the merger occurs.

Even without taking into account the mobility of the American population, the distribution of the merger is still complex; there are pockets of speakers with the merger in areas that lack it, and vice versa. There are areas where the merger has only partially occurred, or is in a state of transition. For example, based on research directed by William Labov (using telephone surveys), younger speakers in Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas exhibit the merger while speakers older than 40 typically do not.[9][10] The 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey, in which subjects did not necessarily grow up in the place they identified as the source of their dialect features, indicates that there are speakers of both merging and contrast-preserving accents throughout the country, though the basic isoglosses are almost identical to those revealed by Labov's 1996 telephone survey. Both surveys indicate that approximately 60% of American English speakers preserve the contrast, while approximately 40% make the merger. Further complicating matters are speakers who partially make the merger, whether by perception or production, or make the merger when the words are spoken unstressed or casually but not when they're stressed.

Speakers with the merger in northeastern New England still maintain a phonemic distinction between a fronted and unrounded {{IPA|/aː/}} and a back and usually rounded {{IPA|/ɒː/}}, because in northeastern New England (unlike in Canada and the Western United States), the cot–caught merger occurred without the father–bother merger. Thus, although northeastern New Englanders pronounce both cot and caught as {{IPA|[kɒːt]}}, they pronounce cart as {{IPA|[käːt]}}.

Labov et al. also reveal that, for about 15% of respondents, a specific {{IPA|/ɒ/}}–{{IPA|/ɔː/}} merger before {{IPA|/n/}} but not before {{IPA|/t/}} (or other consonants) is in effect, so that Don and dawn are homophonous, but cot and caught are not. In this case, a distinct vowel shift (which overlaps with the cot–caught merger for all speakers who have indeed completed the cot–caught merger) is taking place, identified as the Don–dawn merger.[11]

Resistance

According to Labov, Ash, and Boberg,[12] the merger in North America is most strongly resisted in three regions:

  • The "Deep South", a Southern dialect core sub-region encompassing southern Appalachia
  • The "Inland North", encompassing the eastern and central Great Lakes region (on the U.S. side of the border)
  • The "Northeast Corridor" along the Atlantic coast, ranging from Baltimore to Philadelphia to New York City to Providence (but not to Boston or anywhere north of there).

In these areas, sociolinguists have studied three techniques that speakers use to preserve the contrast. The first was fronting of {{IPA|/ɒ/}} found in the Inland North. In this technique, speakers advance the {{Sc2|LOT}} vowel {{IPA|/ɒ/}} as far as the cardinal {{IPA|[a]}} (the open front unrounded vowel). This is also met with the raising of the {{Sc2|TRAP}} vowel {{IPA|/æ/}} to {{IPA|[eə]}} in all instances.[13] (Which vowel triggered which other vowel is still debated.)

The second technique of resistance to the merger is the raising of the {{Sc2|THOUGHT}} vowel {{IPA|/ɔː/}} found in the New York City and the mid-Atlantic region's accents. In areas that don't use this technique, sometimes {{IPA|/ɔː/}} is pronounced closer to {{IPA|[ɔ̝ː]}}. On the contrary, in this technique, either {{IPA|/ɔː/}} retains its historical high (raised) value {{IPA|[ɔː]}}, or it is raised even higher to {{IPA|[ɔə⁓oə]}}, or (in the extreme case) even {{IPA|[ʊə]}}.[13]

The third technique is found in the South. This is the result of vowel breaking in Southern American English, where {{IPA|/ɔː/}} is broken to {{IPA|[ɒʊ]}}, keeping it distinct from the {{Sc2|LOT}} vowel.[13] Many Southerners, however, are beginning to embrace the merger, particularly Southerners who are younger or urban.

Origin

Theories of the origin of the merger exist, with two competing scenarios. One group of scholars argues for an independent North American development, while others argue for contact-induced language change via Scottish immigrants (e.g. Dollinger 2010),[14] in which a role is afforded to Canadian English, where the spread from East to West was completed more quickly than in the US. Others consider the issue unresolved (Boberg 2010: 199?).[15]

England

In London's Cockney accent, a cot–caught merger is possible only in rapid speech. The {{sc2|THOUGHT}} vowel has two phonemically distinct variants: closer {{IPA|/oː/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|oː}} ~ oʊ ~ ɔo]}}) and more open {{IPA|/ɔə/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[ɔə ~ ɔwə ~ {{IPAplink|ɔː}}]}}). The more open variant is sometimes neutralized in rapid speech with the {{sc2|LOT}} vowel {{IPA|/ɒ/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ɒ}} ~ {{IPAplink|ɔ}}]}}) in utterances such as {{IPA|[sˈfɔðɛn]}} (phonemically {{IPA|/ɑɪ wəz ˈfɔə ðen/}}) for I was four then. Otherwise {{IPA|/ɔə/}} is still readily distinguished from {{IPA|/ɒ/}} by length.[16]

Scotland

{{expand section|date=December 2016}}

Outside North America, another dialect featuring the merger is Scottish English. Like in New England English, the cot–caught merger occurred without the father–bother merger. Therefore, speakers still retain the distinction between {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}}.

See also

  • Phonological history of English low back vowels

References

1. ^1 {{harvnb|Wells|1982|p=?}}
2. ^1 {{cite web|title=Accents of English from Around the World|editors=Heggarty, Paul et al|publisher=University of Edinburgh|year=2013|url=http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/research/gsound/|accessdate=2016-12-12}}
3. ^{{cite book|last=Gagnon|first=C. L.|title=Language attitudes in Pittsburgh: 'Pittsburghese' vs. standard English. Master's thesis|year=1999|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|location=Pittsburgh}}
4. ^1 2 {{harvp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=60-1}}
5. ^{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Dubois |first1=Sylvia |first2=Barbara |last2=Horvath |year=2004 |chapter=Cajun Vernacular English: phonology |editor1-first=Bernd |editor1-last=Kortmann |editor2-first=Edgar W. |editor2-last=Schneider |encyclopedia=A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool |location=New York |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |pages=409–10}}
6. ^{{harvp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=218}}
7. ^{{cite web|url=http://videoweb.nie.edu.sg/phonetic/papers/teach-sge.pdf |title=Singapore English |website=Videoweb.nie.edu.sg |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2016-12-12}}
8. ^{{Harvp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=122}}
9. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Gordon|2005}}
10. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/maps/Map1.html |title=Map 1 |website=Ling.upenn.edu |date= |accessdate=2016-12-12}}
11. ^{{Harvp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=217}}
12. ^{{Harvp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=56-65}}
13. ^1 2 {{Harvp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|loc=chpt. 11}}
14. ^{{cite web |url = https://www.academia.edu/4006014/Written_sources_of_Canadian_English_phonetic_reconstruction_and_the_low-back_vowel_merger |title = Written sources of Canadian English: phonetic reconstruction and the low-back vowel merger |first = Stefan |last = Dollinger |website = Academia.edu |date = 2010 |access-date = 2016-03-19}}
15. ^{{Cite book|title = The English language in Canada|last = Boberg|first = Charles|publisher = Cambridge|year = 2010|isbn =|location = Cambridge|pages = 199?}}
16. ^{{harvnb|Wells|1982|pp=305, 310, 318–319}}

Bibliography

  • {{cite book

|last=Barber
|first=Charles Laurence
|title=Early modern English
|edition=second
|location=Edinburgh
|publisher=Edinburgh University Press
|year=1997
|ISBN=0-7486-0835-4
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iat4Bk_YeR4C
}}
  • {{citation

|last=Gordon
|first=Matthew J.
|year=2005
|title=The Midwest Accent
|work=American Varieties
|publisher=PBS
|url=https://www.pbs.org/speak/seatosea/americanvarieties/midwest/
|accessdate=August 29, 2010
}}
  • {{cite book

|last=Labov
|first=William
|authorlink=William Labov
|last2=Ash
|first2=Sharon
|last3=Boberg
|first3=Charles
|title=The Atlas of North American English: Phonetics, Phonology, and Sound Change: a Multimedia Reference Tool
|publisher=Walter de Gruyter
|year= 2006
|isbn=3-11-016746-8
|location=Berlin ; New York
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qa4-dFqi6iMC
|ref=harv
}}
  • {{Accents of English|hide1=y|hide3=y|mode=cs2}}

External links

  • Map of the cot–caught merger from the 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey
  • Map of the cot–caught merger from Labov's 1996 telephone survey
  • Description of the cot–caught merger in the Phonological Atlas
  • Map of the cot–caught merger before {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/t/}}
  • Chapter 13 of the Atlas of North American English, which discusses the "short-o" configuration of various American accents
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cot-caught merger}}

2 : English dialects|Splits and mergers in English phonology
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