“Cultural depictions of lions”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Cultural depictions of lions are known in European, African and Asian countries. The lion has been an important symbol to humans for tens of thousands of years. The earliest graphic representations feature lions as organized hunters with great strength, strategies, and skills. In later depictions of human cultural ceremonies, lions were often used symbolically and may have played significant roles in magic, as deities or close association with deities, and served as intermediaries and clan identities.

The earliest historical records in Egypt present an established religious pantheon that included a lioness as one of the most powerful cultural figures, protecting the people and especially, their rulers, as well as being assigned powerful roles in nature. As human groups moved from being isolated clans and tribes to cities, kingdoms, and countries, ancient symbols retained their importance as they assumed new roles and lions have remained as popular symbols through to modern times.

Depictions of lions in other cultures resembled this and all changed into more supportive roles as human figures began to be portrayed as deities. Similar imagery persisted and was retained through cultural changes, sometimes unchanged. Adoptions of lion imagery as symbols into other cultures without direct contact with lions could be very imaginative, often lacking accurate anatomical details or creating unrealistic characteristics. The association of lions with virtues and character traits was adopted in cultures where and when the religious symbolism had ceased.

In religion and mythology

First depictions

The earliest known cave paintings of lions were found in the Chauvet Cave and in Lascaux in France's Ardèche region and represent some of the earliest paleolithic cave art, dating to between 32,000 and 15,000 years ago.^[1]^[2] The zoomorphic Löwenmensch figurine from Hohlenstein-Stadel and the ivory carving of a lion's head from Vogelherd Cave in the Swabian Jura in southwestern Germany were carbon-dated 39,000 years old, dating from the Aurignacian culture.^[3]

Ancient Egypt

The earliest tomb paintings in Ancient Egypt, at Nekhen, c. 3500 BC, classified as Naqada, possibly Gerzeh, culture include images of lions, including an image of a human (or deity) flanked by two lions in an upright posture. Among ancient Egyptians, from prehistoric times through well documented records, the war goddess Sekhmet, a lioness,^[4] later depicted as woman with a lioness head, was one of their major deities. She was a sun deity as well as a fierce warrior and protector. Usually she was assigned significant roles in the natural environment. The Egyptians held that this sacred lioness was responsible for the annual flooding of the Nile,^[4] the most significant contributing factor to the success of the culture. Sometimes with regional differences in names, a lioness deity was the patron and protector of the people, the king, and the land. As the country united, a blending of those deities was assigned to Sekhmet.{{cn|date=November 2018}}

Similar regional lioness deities assumed minor roles in the pantheon or, when so significant in a region, continued local religious observance in their own right, such as Bast. Offspring of these deities found niches in the expanding pantheon as well.{{cn|date=November 2018}}

During the New Kingdom the Nubian gods Maahes (god of war and protection and the son of Bast) and Dedun (god of incense, hence luxury and wealth) were depicted as lions. Maahes was absorbed into the Egyptian pantheon, and had a temple at the city the invading Greeks called Leontopolis, "City of Lions", at the delta in Lower Egypt. His temple was attached to the major temple of his mother, Bast. Dedun was not absorbed into the Ancient Egyptian religion and remained a Nubian deity.{{cn|date=November 2018}}

Bast, originally depicted as a lioness and the "eye of Ra" in the delta region,^[4] was the parallel deity to Sekhmet in the southern region. Her nature gradually changed after the unification of the country and Sekhmet prevailed throughout. At that time Bast changed into the goddess of personal protection with different responsibilities, and often was depicted as a very tame lioness or a cat. She is shown to the left atop an alabaster jar that contained precious oils and lotions. The name of the stone probably bears her named because materials sacred to her usually were stored in it..{{cn|date=November 2018}}

The sphinx of Ancient Egypt shows the head and shoulders of a human and the body of a lioness. The statues represents Sekhmet, who was the protector of the pharaohs. Later pharaohs were depicted as sphinxes, being thought as the offspring of the deity.{{cn|date=November 2018}}

Ancient Mesopotamia

Sculptures and reliefs of the Neo-Assyrian Empire dating to the 6th and 7th centuries BC were rediscovered and excavated in the mid 19th century. Several reliefs feature lions, including the Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal.^[6]

A well-known detail of this relief is The Dying Lioness depicting a half-paralyzed lioness pierced with arrows. Other Assyrian palace reliefs from this era depict dozens of lions being hunted, originally in an Assyrian royal palace in Nineveh, located in modern-day Iraq. The Babylonian goddess Ishtar was represented driving a chariot drawn by seven lions.^[4]

Ishtar's Sumerian analogue Inanna was frequently depicted standing on the backs of two lionesses. Such symbolism was appropriated by Saddam Hussein's regime in Iraq for their Lion of Babylon tank, with the technology adapted from a Russian model.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

Ancient depictions often described as "panthers" because of no mane, in fact, are lionesses and may be identified easily by the distinctive tip of their tails that artists familiar with their subject, correctly portrayed.{{cn|date=November 2018}}

Ancient sculpture

Lions have been widely used in sculpture to provide a sense of majesty and awe, especially on public buildings. Lions were bold creatures and many ancient cities would have an abundance of lion sculptures to show strength in numbers as well.^[7]^[8] This usage dates back to the origin of civilization.^[9] There are lions at the entrances of cities and sacred sites from Mesopotamian cultures; notable examples include the Lion Gate of ancient Mycenae in Greece that has two lionesses flanking a column that represents a deity,^[10] and the gates in the walls of the Hittite city of Bogazköy, Turkey.^[8]

The "Lion of Menecrates" is a funerary statue of a crouching lioness, found near the cenotaph of Menecrates.{{cn|date=October 2018}} The lion is by a famous Corinthian sculptor of Archaic Greece, end of the seventh century BC, and is now in the Archaeological Museum of Corfu.{{cn|date=October 2018}}

Iran

Lion in the Iranian mythology is a symbol of courage and monarchy. He is portrayed standing beside the kings in artifacts and sitting on the graves of knights. Imperial seals were also decorated with carved lions. The lion and sun motif is based largely on astronomical configurations, and the ancient zodiacal sign of the sun in the house of Leo. Lion and sun will become a symbol of royalty in Iranian flag and coins. Goddesses Anahita sometimes have portrayed standing on a lion. Lion is also title of the fourth grade of Mithraism.^[11]

Lions have been extensively used in ancient Persia as sculptures and on the walls of palaces, in fire temples, tombs, on dishes and jewellery; especially during the Achaemenid Empire. The gates were adorned with lions.^[12] Evidences are found in Persepolis, Susa, Hyrcania.{{cn|date=November 2018}}

Classical period

Several discoveries of lion bones in Greece, the Ukraine and the Balkans have confirmed that lions lived there up to perhaps 1,000 BC, which was previously only a suspicion by some archaeologists. Thus the strong emphasis on lions in the earliest figurative Greek art, especially that of Mycenaean Greece from around 1600-1400 BC, reflected the world in which Greeks lived, rather than being based on stories from further east, as once thought.^[13]

Lionesses often flanked the Gorgon, a vestige of the earliest Greek protective deity that often was featured atop temples of later eras. The western pediment from the Artemis Temple of Corfu is a well preserved example.

The most notable lion of Ancient Greek mythology was the Nemean lion, killed barehanded by Heracles, who subsequently bore the pelt as an invulnerable magic cloak.^[14]

This lion is also said to be represented by the constellation of Leo, and also the sign of the Zodiac.

Lions are known in many cultures as the king of animals, which can be traced to the Babylonian Talmud,^[15] and to the classical book Physiologus. In his fables, the famed Greek story teller Aesop used the lion's symbolism of power and strength in The Lion and the Mouse and Lion's Share.

Since classical antiquity, a Gaetulian lion in literature is a lion of fierce reputation. Gaetulia, in ancient geography, was the land of the Gaetuli, a warlike tribe of ancient Libya that appears in Virgil's Aeneid (19 BC).^[16] The Gaetulia lion appears in Odes of Horace (23 BC),^[17] Pliny the Elder's Natural History (77 AD),^[18] Philostratus's Life of Apollonius of Tyana ({{circa}} 215),^[19] Robert Louis Stevenson's Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes (1879).^[20]

In Socrates' model of the psyche (as described by Plato), the bestial, selfish nature of humanity is described metaphorically as a lion, the "leontomorphic principle".^[21]

Biblical references and Judaeo-Christian tradition

Several Biblical accounts document the presence of lions, and cultural perception of them in ancient Israel.

The best known Biblical account featuring lions comes from the Book of Daniel (chapter 6), where Daniel is thrown into a den of lions and miraculously survives.

A lesser known Biblical account features Samson who kills a lion with his bare hands, later sees bees nesting in its carcass, and poses a riddle based on this unusual incident to test the faithfulness of his fiancée (Judges 14).

The prophet Amos said (Amos, 3, 8): "The lion hath roared, who will not fear? the Lord GOD hath spoken, who can but prophesy?", i.e., when the gift of prophecy comes upon a person, he has no choice but to speak out.

In 1 Peter 5:8, the Devil is compared to a roaring lion "seeking someone to devour."^[22]^[23]

In Christian tradition, Mark the Evangelist, the author of the second gospel is symbolized by a lion – a figure of courage and monarchy. It also represents Jesus' Resurrection (because lions were believed to sleep with open eyes, a comparison with Christ in the tomb), and Christ as king. Some Christian legends refer to Saint Mark as "Saint Mark the Lionhearted". Legends say that he was fed to the lions and the animals refused to attack or eat him. Instead the lions slept at his feet, while he petted them. When the Romans saw this, they released him, spooked by the sight.

The lion is the biblical emblem of the tribe of Judah and later the Kingdom of Judah.^[24] It is contained within Jacob's blessing to his fourth son in the penultimate chapter of the Book of Genesis, "Judah is a lion's whelp; On prey, my son have you grown. He crouches, lies down like a lion, like the king of beasts—who dare rouse him?" (Genesis 49:9^[25]). In the modern state of Israel, the lion remains the symbol of the capital city of Jerusalem, emblazoned on both the flag and coat of arms of the city.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

Late antiquity mysticism

In gnostic traditions, the Demiurge is depicted as a lion-faced figure ("leontoeides"). The gnostic concept of the Demiurge is usually that of a malevolent, petty creator of the physical realm, a false deity responsible for human misery and the gross matter than traps the spiritual essence of the soul, and thus an "animal-like" nature. As a lion-headed figure, the Demiurge is associated with devouring flames,^[26] destroying the souls of humans after they die, as well as with arrogance and callousness.^[27]

A lion-faced figurine is usually associated with the Mithraic mysteries. Without any known parallel in classical, Egyptian, or middle-eastern art,^[28] what this figure is meant to represent currently is unknown. Some have interpreted it to be a representation of Ahriman,^[29] of the aforementioned gnostic Demiurge,^[30] or of some similar malevolent, tyrannical entity, but it has also been interpreted as some sort of time or season deity,^[31] or even a more positive symbol of enlightenment and spiritual transcendence.^[32]

Arthurian legend

In a key scene of Yvain, the Knight of the Lion ({{lang-fr|Yvain, le Chevalier au Lion}}), a romance by Chrétien de Troyes, the hero is depicted as rescuing a lion from a serpent.

Subsequently, the lion proves to be a loyal companion and a symbol of knightly virtue, and helps Yvain complete his altruistic ventures. In the happy end, the lion comes to dwell with Yvain and his wife Laudine at their castle.

Islamic traditions

In Middle Eastern culture, both Arab and Persian, the lion is regarded as the symbol of courage, bravery, royalty, and chivalry. The Middle Eastern depiction of lions are derived from earlier Mesopotamian Babylonian and Persian arts. Islamic art commonly manifests its aesthetic elements predominantly in Islamic calligraphy, floral, and geometric decorative patterns, since Islamic religious tradition discourages the depictions of humans and living creatures (animals) in its sculpture. Through Persian arts miniatures and paintings, however, the depictions of humans and animals survives. In Muslim Spain period, the lion court of Alhambra palace displays the lion statues as supporters and waterspout of fountain.

"Aslan" or "Arslan" (Ottoman ارسلان arslān and اصلان aṣlān) is the Turkish and Mongolian word for "lion". It was used as a title by a number of Seljuk and Ottoman rulers, including Alp Arslan and Ali Pasha, and is a Turkic name.

Hindu-Buddhist traditions in South, South East & East Asia

The lion symbolism and its cultural depictions can be found in Hindu and Buddhist art of India and Southeast Asia. The lion symbolism in India was based upon Asiatic lions that once spread in Indian subcontinent as far as the Middle East.

South Asia

Narasimha ("man-lion"), also spelt Narasingh, Narasinga, is described as an incarnation (Avatara) of Vishnu in the Puranic texts of Hinduism. It is worshiped as "Lion God" and considered sacred by all Hindus in India.

Lions are also found in Buddhist symbolism. Lion pillars erected during the reign of Emperor Ashoka show lions and the chakra emblem. The lions depicted in the Lion Capital of Ashoka inspired artists who designed the Emblem of India.

Singh is an ancient Indian vedic name meaning "lion", dating more than 2,000 years ago to ancient India. It was originally only used by Rajputs, a Hindu Kshatriya or military caste in India. After the birth of the Khalsa brotherhood in 1699, the Sikhs also adopted the name "Singh" due to the wishes of Guru Gobind Singh. Along with millions of Hindu Rajputs and numerous other Hindu martial groups today, it is also used by more than 20 million Sikhs worldwide.^[33]^[34] The appellation of the name Singh was used by the Rajputs before being adopted by the Sikhs in 1699.^[35] Therefore, all "Singh"s in Indian history before 1699 are Hindu and mainly Rajputs. The lion also features as the carrier or the vehicle of Durga, the Hindu goddess of war, worshipped in and around the Bengal region.

The lion is symbolic for the Sinhalese, Sri Lanka's ethnic majority; the term derived from the Indo-Aryan Sinhala, meaning the "lion people" or "people with lion blood", while a sword-wielding lion is the central figure on the modern national flag of Sri Lanka.

The entrance to Sigiriya, the Lion-Rock of Sri Lanka, was through the Lion Gate, the mouth of a stone lion. The paws of the lion is one of seven World Heritage Sites in Sri Lanka.

Southeast Asia

Lions were never native animals of Southeast Asia in recorded history. As the result, the depiction of lion in ancient Southeast Asian art, especially in ancient Java and Cambodia, is far from naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or Persian art counterparts, since the artist who carved the lion sculpture never saw the lion before, and all were based on perception and imagination. The cultural depictions and the reverence of lion as the noble and powerful beast in Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture.

Statue of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate guardian. In Borobudur Buddhist monument Central Java, Indonesia andesite stone statues of lions guarding four main entrances of Borobudur. The thrones of Buddha and Boddhisattva found in Kalasan and Mendut buddhist temples of ancient Java depicted elephant, lion, and makara. The statue of a winged lion also is found in Penataran temple East Java, as well as in Balinese temples. The Balinese winged lion often served as the guardian statue or as the pedestal of wooden column.

In Cambodia statues of lions flanking the temple gate or access roads are commonly found in temples of Angkor. Bakong, a stepped pyramid Hindu temple from earlier period also displays lion statues as guardians of each stage on each of the cardinal points. Khmer lion guardian statues are commonly found in Angkor Wat, Bayon, Pre Rup and Srah Srang. Just like ancient Java, the depiction of lion in ancient Khmer art is not in naturalistic style, more like a symbolic mythical animal derived from Indian Hindu-Buddhist art. The royal emblem of Cambodia depicting a pair of guardian animals; gajasingha (hybrid of elephant and lion) and singha (lion). In Thailand, a pair of lion statues are often placed in front of temple gate as guardian. The style of Thai lion is similar to those of Cambodian, since Thailand derived many of its aesthetics and arts elements from Cambodian Khmer art.

In Myanmar, the statue of lion called Chinthe guarding the stupas, pagodas, and Buddhist temples in Bagan, while pair of lions are also featured in the country's coat-of-arms.

The island nation of Singapore (Singapura) derives its name from the Malay words {{lang|ms|singa}} (lion) and {{lang|ms|pura}} (city), which in turn is from the Tamil-Sanskrit சிங்க singa {{lang|sa|सिंह}} {{IAST|siṃha}} and {{lang|sa|पुर}} புர {{IAST|pura}}.^[36] According to the Malay Annals, this name was given by a fourteenth-century Sumatran Malay prince named Sang Nila Utama, who, on alighting the island after a thunderstorm, spotted an auspicious beast on shore that his chief minister identified as a lion (Asiatic lion).^[37] Recent studies of Singapore indicate that lions have never lived there, and the beast seen by Sang Nila Utama likely was a tiger.

In the modern era, the lion or Merlion became the icon of Singapore due to the island's name. The Merlion also figures heavily in the official symbols of the Philippines as it was once an overseas possession of Spain; it appears on the coat-of-arms of Manila, as well as the emblems of the President, Vice-President, and its navy.

East Asian traditions

The common motif of the "majestic and powerful" lion was introduced to China by Buddhist missionaries from India, somewhere in the first century AD.^[39] Lions themselves, however, are not native to China, yet appear in the art of China and the Chinese people believe that lions protect humans from evil spirits, hence the Chinese New Year lion dance to scare away demons and ghosts. Chinese guardian lions are frequently used in sculpture in traditional Chinese architecture. For instance, in the Forbidden City in Beijing, two lion statues are seen in almost every door entrance.

Lions feature prominently in the Tibetan culture with a pair of Snow Lions seen on the Tibetan flag. The Snow Lions are mythical creatures that are seen as protector entities. The Snow Lion symbolizes fearlessness, unconditional cheerfulness, east, and the Earth element. It is one of the Four Dignities. It ranges over the mountains, and is commonly pictured as being white with a turquoise mane.

Lions (獅子, shishi) feature prominently in many kabuki plays and other forms of Japanese legend and traditional tales.

Title of kings and political leaders

Various kings and political leaders in different cultures and times, famed for courage or fierceness, were entitled "the lion" – such as:

In fine art

Paintings of lions

U.K.

U.S.

In heraldry

The lion is a common charge in heraldry, traditionally symbolizing courage.^[46] The following positions of heraldic lions are recognized:^[47]

The lion holds historical significance for English heraldry and symbolism. The three lions was a symbol for Richard the Lionheart, and later, for England. For many centuries the lion had been a feature of the Armorial of Plantagenet of the House of Plantagenet, and is still worn by both the England national football team and England and Wales cricket team.

The lion rampant continues to be used widely today; the Royal Banner of Scotland has given rise to its use as the emblem for the Scotland national football team and Rangers and Dundee United of the Scottish Premier League, as well as English Premier League club Aston Villa; and not only sport but businesses such as the French car company Peugeot, the international beer company Lion Nathan, and Caledonian MacBrayne ferries. Arising from heraldic use, the Red Lion is also a popular pub name, with over 600 pubs bearing the name.^[48] A rarer inn name is the White Lion, derived from Edward IV or the Duke of Norfolk.^[48] Though the lion rampant appears on the Lyon coat of arms and flag, the French city's name has an unrelated derivation despite the similarity. Rampant lions are common charges in heraldry. For example, the arms of the Carter of Castle Martin family, Ireland (see Carter-Campbell of Possil) include a pair of rampant combatant lions.

In the Middle Ages, when lions became a major element in heraldry, few Europeans had any chance to see actual lions. The lions were for them nearly as much legendary animals as were dragons or gryffins, which also commonly appeared on coats of arms.

Currency

National currencies of three countries in Europe are named after the lion: the Bulgarian lev ({{lang-bg|лев}}, plural: лева, левове / leva, levove), and the Moldovan and Romanian leu (/leŭ/, plural: lei /lej/) all mean "lion".

Ship names

No less than 18 consecutive ships of the British Royal Navy bore the name HMS Lion. Also, various other navies have used the name for their vessels,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} as did civil shipping companies.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

Place names

Modern culture

Literature

Film

The lion's role as "king of the beasts" has been utilized in cartoons, from the Leonardo Lion of King Leonardo and His Short Subjects (1960–1963) series to the Disney animated feature film The Lion King (1994)

Modern symbolism

The lion is a popular mascot or symbol, for businesses, government entities, sports, and other uses; for example:

Automotive brands

Government entities

Sports

See also

References

1. ^{{cite book |last=Chauvet | first=J.-M. |last2=Brunel| first2= D. E. |last3=Hillaire| first3=C. |year=1996 |title=Dawn of Art: The Chauvet Cave. The oldest known paintings in the world |location=New York |publisher=Harry N. Abrams}}
2. ^{{cite conference |first=Christian |last=Züchner |title=Grotte Chauvet Archaeologically Dated |date=1998 |conference=International Rock Art Congress |location=Vila Real, Portugal |url=http://www.uf.uni-erlangen.de/chauvet/chauvet.html |accessdate=2007-08-27 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010221092412/http://www.uf.uni-erlangen.de/chauvet/chauvet.html |archivedate=21 February 2001 |df=dmy-all}}
3. ^{{cite journal |title=Löwenmensch, Mammut und eine Frau. Die älteste Kunst der Menschheit auf der Schwäbischen Alb und die Nachgrabungen am Hohlenstein im Lonetal |author=Kind, C. J. |journal=Denkmalpflege in Baden-Württemberg–Nachrichtenblatt der Landesdenkmalpflege |year=2011 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=3–8}}
4. ^¹²³{{Cite book|last=Garai |first=Jana |title=The Book of Symbols |year=1973 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-671-21773-0}}
5. ^{{Cite journal |last=Cassin |first=Elena |year=1981 |title=Le roi et le lion |journal=Revue de l'histoire des religions |volume=298 |issue=198–4 |pages=355–401 |doi=10.3406/rhr.1981.4828 |url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rhr_0035-1423_1981_num_198_4_4828 |accessdate=2009-12-03}}
6. ^{{cite book |author=Reade, J. |title=Assyrian Sculpture |year=1988 |edition=Second |publisher=British Museum Press |location=London |isbn=9780714120201}}
7. ^"The Art Institute of Chicago" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819174654/http://www.thechicagotraveler.com/the-art-institute-of-chicago/ |date=19 August 2007 }}. The Chicago Traveller. 2007
8. ^¹"The Hidden Language of Anatolia". Skylife Magazine, 2001
9. ^"Iraqi Multi-National Force & Corps Logos, Ancient Assyro-Babylonian Images". Zinda Magazine, 2004.
10. ^Matthews, Kevin (2007). Lion Gate. Great Buildings Online.
11. ^{{Cite web|url = https://jfava.ut.ac.ir/article_28523.html|title = The Archytype of Lion, in Ancient Iran, Mesopotamia & Egypt |date = 2013|publisher = Tehran: Honarhay-e Ziba Journal, No. 49|last = Taheri|first = Sadreddin}}
12. ^http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/ancient-art/persian.htm
13. ^{{cite book |author=Thomas, Nancy R. |chapter=The Early Mycenaean Lion up to Date |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zQOQey4OkAsC&pg=PA181&lpg=PA181 |title=Charis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr |publisher=Hesperia |location=Princeton |pages=189–191 |isbn=0876615337}}
14. ^{{Cite book|last=Graves |first=R |authorlink=Robert Graves |title=Greek Myths |year=1955|publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0-14-001026-2|pages=465–469 |chapter=The First Labour:The Nemean Lion}}
15. ^Hagigah 13b
16. ^{{cite book |title=Aeneid |author=Virgil |chapter=Book V, Line 352 |year= |quote=..my task to offer consolation to our friend for the downfall he did nothing to deserve." With these words he gave Salius the hide of a huge Gaetulian lion, weighed down with gilded claws and mane.}}
17. ^{{cite book |title=Odes of Horace |chapter=Book I, Ode XXIII |author=Horace |year= |quote=You shun me, Chloe, like a fawn that is seeking its timorous mother in the pathless mountains, not without a vain dread of the breezes and the thickets: for she trembles both in her heart and knees, whether the arrival of the spring has terrified by its rustling leaves, or the green lizards have stirred the bush. But I do not follow you, like a savage tigress, or a Gaetulian lion, to tear you to pieces. Therefore, quit your mother, now that you are mature for a husband.}}
18. ^{{cite book |title=Natural History |chapter=Book VIII – Chapter: Wonderful feats performed by lions |author=Pliny the Elder |year= |quote=It was formerly a very difficult matter to catch the lion, and it was mostly done by means of pit-falls. In the reign however, of the Emperor Claudius, accident disclosed a method which appears most disgraceful to the name of such an animal; a Gaetulian shepherd stopped a lion, that was rushing furiously upon him, by merely throwing his cloak over the animal; a circumstance which afterwards afforded an exhibition in the arena of the Circus, when the frantic fury of the animal was paralyzed in a manner almost incredible by a light covering being thrown over its head, so much so, that it was put into chains without the least resistance; we must conclude, therefore, that all its strength lies in its eyes. The circumstance renders what was done by Lysimachus less wonderful, who strangled a lion, with which he had been shut up by command of Alexander.}}
19. ^{{cite book |title=Life of Apollonius of Tyana |author=Philostratus |year=215 |quote=The extremity of Libya, which bears the name Abinna, furnishes a haunt of lions, who hunt their prey along the brows of the mountains which are to be seen rising inland, and it marches with the Gaetuli and Tingae, both of them wild Libyan tribes.}}
20. ^{{cite book |title=Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes |author=Robert Louis Stevenson |year=1879 |quote="Your father and mother?" cried the priest. "Very well; you will convert them in their turn when you go home." I think I see my father’s face! I would rather tackle the Gaetulian lion in his den than embark on such an enterprise against the family theologian.}}
21. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/plato.html | title = Plato, Republic 588A-589B | publisher = "The Gnostic Society Library | accessdate = 2009-02-12 }}
22. ^C.A.W. Guggisberg, Simba
23. ^Bible (American Standard)/1 Peter#Chapter 5 Verse 8
24. ^{{Cite book|author=Epstein, Marc Michael |title=Dreams of subversion in medieval Jewish art and literature |url=https://books.google.com/?id=bzINIM23-TcC&pg=PA110&dq=lions+symbolize+yehuda#v=onepage&q&f=false|pages=110, 121|publisher=Penn State Press|year=1997|isbn=0-271-01605-1|accessdate=13 September 2010}}
25. ^JPS Tanakh
26. ^Hipp. Ref. vi. 9
27. ^Apocryphon of John
28. ^von Gall, Hubertus, "The Lion-headed and the Human-headed God in the Mithraic Mysteries," in Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin ed. Études mithriaques, 1978, pp. 511
29. ^Jackson, Howard M., "The Meaning and Function of the Leontocephaline in Roman Mithraism" in Numen, Vol. 32, Fasc. 1 (Jul., 1985), pp. 17-45
30. ^David M Gwynn (2010). Religious diversity in late antiquity. BRILL. p. 448.
31. ^Beck, R, Beck on Mithraism, pp. 194
32. ^
33. ^McCleod, Head of Sikh Studies, Department of South Asian Studies, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
34. ^Khushwant Singh, A History of the Sikhs, Volume I
35. ^Singh, G. year?? A History of the Sikh People (1469–1988) {{ISBN|81-7023-139-6}}
36. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/46/S0424600.html |title=Singapore |publisher=bartleby.com |accessdate=2006-04-14 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629044446/http://www.bartleby.com/61/46/S0424600.html |archivedate=29 June 2008 |df=dmy }}
37. ^{{cite web | title = Early History | url = http://www.sg/explore/history.htm | publisher = Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts, Singapore | accessdate = 2006-04-14 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060427030111/http://www.sg/explore/history.htm | archivedate = 27 April 2006 | df = dmy-all }}
38. ^British Museum Collection
39. ^http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20021006/spectrum/art.htm
40. ^{{cite book |last=As-Salab |first=A. M. |title=Omar Al Mokhtar Lion of the Desert (The Biography of Shaikh Omar Al Mukhtar) |url= |year=2011 |publisher= |location=Al-Firdous |isbn=978-1874263647}}
41. ^{{Cite book|title=Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East |page=25 |last=Seale |first=Patrick |publisher=University of California Press |year=1990 |isbn=9780520069763}}
42. ^¹{{cite web|website=Ghosts of DC|title=History Behind Lion Statues House of Cards Opening Credits|date=February 20, 2014|authors=Willimon, Beau & Team|url=http://ghostsofdc.org/2014/02/20/history-behind-lion-statues-house-cards-opening-credits/}}
43. ^{{cite web|title=Bronze Lions Flank Connecticut Avenue Entrance|website=National Zoo|url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ZooArt/BronzeLions/|access-date=4 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115449/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ZooArt/BronzeLions/|archive-date=2 April 2015|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}
44. ^Main Entrance of Mount Ecclesia (Lions Arch)
45. ^Lions Arch at Mt. Ecclesia: photo by Robert Sommers, 2015
46. ^{{Cite book | last =Wade | first =W. Cecil | title =Symbolisms of Heraldry | publisher=Kessinger | year =1898 | location =London | isbn = 978-0-7661-4168-1 | page =168}}
47. ^{{cite web | title = Heraldic Dictionary:Beasts | publisher = University of Notre Dame | url = http://www.rarebooks.nd.edu/digital/heraldry/charges/lions.html | accessdate = 2007-07-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070610045340/http://www.rarebooks.nd.edu/digital/heraldry/charges/lions.html | archive-date = 10 June 2007 | dead-url = yes | df = dmy-all }}
48. ^¹{{Cite book|author= Dunkling L, Wright G |title=The Wordsworth Dictionary of Pub Names |year=1994|origyear=1987 |publisher= Wordsworth Reference|location=Ware, Hertfordshire |isbn=1-85326-334-6}}
49. ^L. Frank Baum, Michael Patrick Hearn, The Annotated Wizard of Oz, p 148, {{ISBN|0-517-50086-8}}
50. ^{{Cite book|last=Lewis |first=C.S. |authorlink=C. S. Lewis |title= The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe |year= 1950 |publisher= HarperCollins |isbn= 0-06-023481-4}}
51. ^{{cite web |author=Richards, D. |year=2006 |dead-url=yes |url=http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page=article&old=1&id=8330 |title=The Joy of Pride: Vaughan talks "Pride of Baghdad" |work=Comic Book Resources |accessdate=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131223133626/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page=article&old=1&id=8330 |archive-date=23 December 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
52. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.tvacres.com/adanimals_leolion.htm | title = TV ACRES: Advertising Mascots - Animals - Leo the MGM Lion (MGM Studios) | work = TV Acres | access-date = 6 August 2007 | archive-url = https://archive.is/20121205093550/http://www.tvacres.com/adanimals_leolion.htm | archive-date = 5 December 2012 | dead-url = yes | df = dmy-all }}
53. ^[https://www.flickr.com/photos/dalmatica/446710932/ The Ghost and the Darkness Were Their Names on Flickr - Photo Sharing!]
54. ^Heart of a Lioness
55. ^{{Cite book|last= |first= |authorlink= |title=Superbrands:An Insight into more than 80 of Australia's Superbrands - Volume II|year= 1999|publisher=Stephen P. Smith |location=Sydney |isbn=0-9577000-0-8}}
56. ^{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|last=Shahbazi|first=A. Shapur|title=Flags|volume=10|year=2001|url=http://www.iranica.com/articles/v10f1/v10f103a.html|location=Costa Mesa|publisher=Mazda|date=|accessdate=6 August 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817212014/http://www.iranica.com/articles/v10f1/v10f103a.html|archivedate=17 August 2007|deadurl=yes|df=dmy-all}}