请输入您要查询的百科知识：

　

词条 Cardiac arrest
释义

  1. Signs and symptoms

  2. Causes

      Coronary artery disease   Structural heart disease   Inherited arrhythmia syndromes   Non-cardiac causes  Mnemonic for reversible causes  Risk factors 

  3. Mechanism

  4. Diagnosis

     Classifications 

  5. Prevention

     Code teams  Implantable cardioverter defibrillator  Diet 

  6. Management

     Cardiopulmonary resuscitation  Defibrillation  Medications  Targeted temperature management  Do not resuscitate  Chain of survival  Other 

  7. Prognosis

  8. Epidemiology

  9. Society and culture

     Names  Show code 

  10. References

  11. External links

{{Other uses}}{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Cardiac arrest
| image = US Navy 040421-N-8090G-001 Hospital Corpsman 3rd Class Flowers administers chest compressions to a simulated cardiac arrest victim.jpg
| caption = CPR being administered during a simulation of cardiac arrest.
| synonyms = Cardiopulmonary arrest, circulatory arrest, sudden cardiac arrest (SCA), sudden cardiac death (SCD)[1]
| field = Cardiology
| symptoms = Loss of consciousness, abnormal or no breathing[1][3]
| complications =
| onset = Older age[4]
| duration =
| causes = Coronary artery disease, major blood loss, lack of oxygen, very low potassium, heart failure[5]
| risks =
| diagnosis = Finding no pulse[1]
| differential =
| prevention = Not smoking, physical activity, maintaining a healthy weight[7]
| treatment = Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), defibrillation[8]
| medication =
| prognosis = Survival rate < 10%[9]
| frequency = 13 per 10,000 people per year (outside hospital in the US)[10]
| deaths =
}}Cardiac arrest is a sudden loss of blood flow resulting from the failure of the heart to effectively pump.[11] Symptoms include loss of consciousness and abnormal or absent breathing.[1][3] Some individuals may experience chest pain, shortness of breath, or nausea before cardiac arrest.[2] If not treated within minutes, it typically leads to death.[3]

The most common cause of cardiac arrest is coronary artery disease.[5] Less common causes include major blood loss, lack of oxygen, very low potassium, heart failure, and intense physical exercise.[5] A number of inherited disorders may also increase the risk including long QT syndrome.[5] The initial heart rhythm is most often ventricular fibrillation.[4] The diagnosis is confirmed by finding no pulse.[1] While a cardiac arrest may be caused by heart attack or heart failure, these are not the same.[3]

Prevention includes not smoking, physical activity, and maintaining a healthy weight.[7] Treatment for cardiac arrest includes immediate cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and, if a shockable rhythm is present, defibrillation.[5] Among those who survive, targeted temperature management may improve outcomes.[6][7] An implantable cardiac defibrillator may be placed to reduce the chance of death from recurrence.[8]

In the United States, cardiac arrest outside hospital occurs in about 13 per 10,000 people per year (326,000 cases).[10] In hospital cardiac arrest occurs in an additional 209,000.[9] Cardiac arrest becomes more common with age.[4] It affects males more often than females.[10] The percentage of people who survive with treatment is about 8%.[9] Many who survive have significant disability.[9] However, many American television programs have portrayed unrealistically high survival rates of 67%.[11]

Signs and symptoms

Cardiac arrest is preceded by no warning symptoms in approximately 50 percent of people.[12] For those who do experience symptoms, they will be non-specific, such as new or worsening chest pain, fatigue, blackouts, dizziness, shortness of breath, weakness and vomiting.[13] When cardiac arrest occurs, the most obvious sign of its occurrence will be the lack of a palpable pulse in the victim. Also, as a result of loss of cerebral perfusion (blood flow to the brain), the victim will rapidly lose consciousness and will stop breathing. The main criterion for diagnosing a cardiac arrest, as opposed to respiratory arrest, which shares many of the same features, is lack of circulation; however, there are a number of ways of determining this. Near-death experiences are reported by 10 to –20 percent of people who survived cardiac arrest.[14]

Certain types of prompt intervention can often reverse a cardiac arrest, but without such intervention, death is all but certain.[15] In certain cases, cardiac arrest is an anticipated outcome of a serious illness where death is expected.[16]

Causes

Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) and sudden cardiac death (SCD) occur when the heart abruptly begins to beat in an abnormal or irregular rhythm (arrhythmia). Without organized electrical activity in the heart muscle, there is no consistent contraction of the ventricles, which results in the heart's inability to generate an adequate cardiac output (forward pumping of blood from heart to rest of the body).[17] There are many different types of arrhythmias, but the ones most frequently recorded in SCA and SCD are ventricular tachycardia (VT) or ventricular fibrillation (VF).[18]

Sudden cardiac arrest can result from cardiac and non-cardiac causes including the following:

Coronary artery disease

Coronary artery disease (CAD), also known as ischemic heart disease, is responsible for 62 to 70 percent of all SCDs.[19][20] CAD is a much less frequent cause of SCD in people under the age of 40.[19]

Cases have shown that the most common finding at postmortem examination of sudden cardiac death (SCD) is chronic high-grade stenosis of at least one segment of a major coronary artery,[21] the arteries that supply the heart muscle with its blood supply.

Structural heart disease

Structural heart disease not related to CAD (i.e. hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, congenital coronary artery anomalies, myocarditis) account for 10% of all SCDs.[20][17] Examples of these include: cardiomyopathy, cardiac rhythm disturbances, myocarditis, hypertensive heart disease,[22] and congestive heart failure.[23]

Left ventricular hypertrophy is thought to be a leading cause of SCD in the adult population.[24] This is most commonly the result of longstanding high blood pressure which has caused secondary damage to the wall of the main pumping chamber of the heart, the left ventricle.[25]

A 1999 review of SCDs in the United States found that this accounted for over 30% of SCDs for those under 30 years. A study of military recruits age 18-35 found that this accounted for over 40% of SCDs.[19][20]

Congestive heart failure increases the risk of SCD fivefold.[23]

Inherited arrhythmia syndromes

Arrhythmias that are not due to structural heart disease account for 5 to 10% of sudden cardiac arrests.[26][27][28] These are frequently caused by genetic disorders that lead to abnormal heart rhythms. The genetic mutations often affect specialised proteins known as ion channels that conduct electrically charged particles across the cell membrane, and this group of conditions are therefore often referred to as channelopathies. Examples of these inherited arrhythmia syndromes include Long QT syndrome, Brugada Syndrome, Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, and Short QT syndrome. Other conditions that promote arrhythmias but are not caused by genetic mutations include Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. [17]

Long QT syndrome, a condition often mentioned in young people's deaths, occurs in one of every 5000 to 7000 newborns and is estimated to be responsible for 3000 deaths each year compared to the approximately 300,000[29] cardiac arrests seen by emergency services. These conditions are a fraction of the overall deaths related to cardiac arrest, but represent conditions which may be detected prior to arrest and may be treatable.

Non-cardiac causes

SCA due to non-cardiac causes accounts for the remaining 15 to 25%.[28][30]

The most common non-cardiac causes are trauma, bleeding (such as gastrointestinal bleeding, aortic rupture, or intracranial hemorrhage), overdose, drowning and pulmonary embolism.[31] Cardiac arrest can also be caused by poisoning (for example, by the stings of certain jellyfish).

Mnemonic for reversible causes

{{Main|Hs and Ts}}"Hs and Ts" is the name for a mnemonic used to aid in remembering the possible treatable or reversible causes of cardiac arrest.[32][33]
Hs
  • Hypovolemia – A lack of blood volume
  • Hypoxia – A lack of oxygen
  • Hydrogen ions (Acidosis) – An abnormal pH in the body
  • Hyperkalemia or Hypokalemia – Both excess and inadequate potassium can be life-threatening.
  • Hypothermia – A low core body temperature
  • Hypoglycemia or Hyperglycemia – Low or high blood glucose
Ts
  • Tablets or Toxins
  • Cardiac Tamponade – Fluid building around the heart
  • Tension pneumothorax – A collapsed lung
  • Thrombosis (Myocardial infarction) – Heart attack
  • Thromboembolism (Pulmonary embolism) – A blood clot in the lung
  • Traumatic cardiac arrest

Risk factors

The risk factors for SCD are similar to those of coronary artery disease and include age, cigarette smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, lack of physical exercise, obesity, diabetes, and family history.[34] A prior episode of sudden cardiac arrest also increases the risk of future episodes.[35]

Current cigarette smokers with coronary artery disease were found to have a two to threefold increase in the risk of sudden death between ages 30 and 59. Furthermore, it was found that former smokers’ risk was closer to that of those who had never smoked.[12][36]

Mechanism

The mechanism of death in the majority of people dying sudden cardiac deaths is ventricular fibrillation.[4] Structural changes in the diseased heart as a result of inherited factors (mutations in ion-channel coding genes for example) cannot explain the suddenness of SCD.[37] Also, sudden cardiac death could be the consequence of electric-mechanical disjunction and bradyarrhythmias.[38][39]

Diagnosis

Cardiac arrest is synonymous with clinical death.

A cardiac arrest is usually diagnosed clinically by the absence of a pulse. In many cases lack of carotid pulse is the gold standard for diagnosing cardiac arrest, as lack of a pulse (particularly in the peripheral pulses) may result from other conditions (e.g. shock), or simply an error on the part of the rescuer. Nonetheless, studies have shown that rescuers often make a mistake when checking the carotid pulse in an emergency, whether they are healthcare professionals[40] or lay persons.[41]

Owing to the inaccuracy in this method of diagnosis, some bodies such as the European Resuscitation Council (ERC) have de-emphasised its importance. The Resuscitation Council (UK), in line with the ERC's recommendations and those of the American Heart Association,[42]

have suggested that the technique should be used only by healthcare professionals with specific training and expertise, and even then that it should be viewed in conjunction with other indicators such as agonal respiration.[43]

Various other methods for detecting circulation have been proposed. Guidelines following the 2000 International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) recommendations were for rescuers to look for "signs of circulation", but not specifically the pulse.[42] These signs included coughing, gasping, colour, twitching and movement.[44] However, in face of evidence that these guidelines were ineffective, the current recommendation of ILCOR is that cardiac arrest should be diagnosed in all casualties who are unconscious and not breathing normally.[42] Another method is to use molecular autopsy or postmortem molecular testing which uses a set of molecular techniques to find the ion channels that are cardiac defective.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}}

Classifications

Clinicians classify cardiac arrest into "shockable" versus "non–shockable", as determined by the ECG rhythm. This refers to whether a particular class of cardiac dysrhythmia is treatable using defibrillation.[43] The two "shockable" rhythms are ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia while the two "non–shockable" rhythms are asystole and pulseless electrical activity.[45]

Prevention

With positive outcomes following cardiac arrest unlikely, an effort has been spent in finding effective strategies to prevent cardiac arrest. With the prime causes of cardiac arrest being ischemic heart disease, efforts to promote a healthy diet, exercise, and smoking cessation are important. For people at risk of heart disease, measures such as blood pressure control, cholesterol lowering, and other medico-therapeutic interventions are used.{{ref}} A Cochrane review published in 2016 found moderate-quality evidence to show that blood pressure-lowering drugs do not appear to reduce sudden cardiac death.[46]

Code teams

In medical parlance, cardiac arrest is referred to as a "code" or a "crash". This typically refers to "code blue" on the hospital emergency codes. A dramatic drop in vital sign measurements is referred to as "coding" or "crashing", though coding is usually used when it results in cardiac arrest, while crashing might not. Treatment for cardiac arrest is sometimes referred to as "calling a code".

People in general wards often deteriorate for several hours or even days before a cardiac arrest occurs.[43][47] This has been attributed to a lack of knowledge and skill amongst ward-based staff, in particular a failure to carry out measurement of the respiratory rate, which is often the major predictor of a deterioration[43] and can often change up to 48 hours prior to a cardiac arrest. In response to this, many hospitals now have increased training for ward-based staff. A number of "early warning" systems also exist which aim to quantify the person's risk of deterioration based on their vital signs and thus provide a guide to staff. In addition, specialist staff are being used more effectively in order to augment the work already being done at ward level. These include:

  • Crash teams (or code teams) – These are designated staff members with particular expertise in resuscitation who are called to the scene of all arrests within the hospital. This usually involves a specialized cart of equipment (including defibrillator) and drugs called a "crash cart" or "crash trolley".
  • Medical emergency teams – These teams respond to all emergencies, with the aim of treating the people in the acute phase of their illness in order to prevent a cardiac arrest. These teams have been found to decrease the rates of in hospital cardiac arrest and improve survival.[9]
  • Critical care outreach – As well as providing the services of the other two types of team, these teams are also responsible for educating non-specialist staff. In addition, they help to facilitate transfers between intensive care/high dependency units and the general hospital wards. This is particularly important, as many studies have shown that a significant percentage of patients discharged from critical care environments quickly deteriorate and are re-admitted; the outreach team offers support to ward staff to prevent this from happening.{{citation needed|date=December 2017}}

Implantable cardioverter defibrillator

An implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) is a battery powered device that monitors electrical activity in the heart and when an arrhythmia or asystole is detected is able to deliver an electrical shock to terminate the abnormal rhythm. ICDs are used to prevent sudden cardiac death (SCD) in those that have survived a prior episode of sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) due to ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia (secondary prevention).[48] ICDs are also used prophylactically to prevent sudden cardiac death in certain high risk patient populations (primary prevention).[49]

Numerous studies have been conducted on the use of ICDs for the secondary prevention of SCD. These studies have shown improved survival with ICDs compared to the use of anti-arrhythmic drugs.[48] ICD therapy is associated with a 50% relative risk reduction in death caused by an arrhythmia and a 25% relative risk reduction in all cause mortality.[50]

Primary prevention of SCD with ICD therapy for high risk patient populations has similarly shown improved survival rates in a number of large studies. The high risk patient populations in these studies were defined as those with severe ischemic cardiomyopathy (determined by a reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF)). The LVEF criteria used in these trials ranged from less than or equal to 30% in MADIT-II to less than or equal to 40% in MUSTT.[48][49]

Diet

Marine-derived omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) has been promoted for the prevention of sudden cardiac death due to its postulated ability to lower triglyceride levels, prevent arrhythmias, decrease platelet aggregation, and lower blood pressure.[51] However, according to a recent systematic review, omega-3 PUFA supplementation are not being associated with a lower risk of sudden cardiac death.[52]

Management

Sudden cardiac arrest may be treated via attempts at resuscitation. This is usually carried out based upon basic life support (BLS)/advanced cardiac life support (ACLS),[42] pediatric advanced life support (PALS)[53] or neonatal resuscitation program (NRP) guidelines.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a key part of the management of cardiac arrest. It is recommended that it be started as soon as possible and interrupted as little as possible. The component of CPR that seems to make the greatest difference in most cases is the chest compressions. Correctly performed bystander CPR has been shown to increase survival; however, it is performed in less than 30% of out of hospital arrests {{as of|2007|lc=y}}.[96] If high-quality CPR has not resulted in return of spontaneous circulation and the person's heart rhythm is in asystole, discontinuing CPR and pronouncing the person's death is reasonable after 20 minutes.[97] Exceptions to this include those with hypothermia or who have drowned.[54] Longer durations of CPR may be reasonable in those who have cardiac arrest while in hospital.[55] Bystander CPR, by the lay public, before the arrival of EMS also improves outcomes.[9]

Either a bag valve mask or an advanced airway may be used to help with breathing.[101] High levels of oxygen are generally given during CPR.[56] Tracheal intubation has not been found to improve survival rates or neurological outcome in cardiac arrest[57][58] and in the prehospital environment may worsen it.[59] Endotracheal tube and supraglottic airways appear equally useful.[60] When done by EMS 30 compressions followed by two breaths appear better than continuous chest compressions and breaths being given while compressions are ongoing.[107]

For bystanders, CPR which involves only chest compressions results in better outcomes as compared to standard CPR for those who have gone into cardiac arrest due to heart issues.[61] Mechanical chest compressions (as performed by a machine) are no better than chest compressions performed by hand.[56] It is unclear if a few minutes of CPR before defibrillation results in different outcomes than immediate defibrillation.[62] If cardiac arrest occurs after 20 weeks of pregnancy someone should pull or push the uterus to the left during CPR.[111] If a pulse has not returned by four minutes emergency Cesarean section is recommended.[111]

Defibrillation

Defibrillation is indicated if a shockable rhythm is present. The two shockable rhythms are ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia. In children 2 to 4 J/Kg is recommended.[63]

In addition, there is increasing use of public access defibrillation. This involves placing an automated external defibrillator in public places, and training staff in these areas how to use them. This allows defibrillation to take place prior to the arrival of emergency services, and has been shown to lead to increased chances of survival. Some defibrillators even provide feedback on the quality of CPR compressions, encouraging the lay rescuer to press the person's chest hard enough to circulate blood.[64] In addition, it has been shown that those who have arrests in remote locations have worse outcomes following cardiac arrest.[65]

Medications

{{as of|2016}} medications, while included in guidelines, have not been shown to improve survival to hospital discharge following out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. This includes the use of epinephrine (adrenaline), atropine, lidocaine, and amiodarone.[66][67][68][69][70] Epinephrine is generally recommended every five minutes.[56] Vasopressin overall does not improve or worsen outcomes compared to epinephrine.[56] The combination of epinephrine, vasopressin, and methylprednisolone appears to improve outcomes.[71]

Epinephrine does appear to improve short-term outcomes such as return of spontaneous circulation.[72] Some of the lack of long-term benefit may be related to delays in epinephrine use.[73] While evidence does not support its use in children, guidelines state its use is reasonable.[63] Lidocaine and amiodarone are also deemed reasonable in children with cardiac arrest who have a shockable rhythm.[56][63] The general use of sodium bicarbonate or calcium is not recommended.[56][74]

The 2010 guidelines from the American Heart Association no longer contain the recommendation for using atropine in pulseless electrical activity and asystole for want of evidence for its use.[75] Neither lidocaine nor amiodarone, in those who continue in ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation despite defibrillation, improves survival to hospital discharge but both equally improve survival to hospital admission.[76]

Thrombolytics when used generally may cause harm but may be of benefit in those with a confirmed pulmonary embolism as the cause of arrest.[77][111] Evidence for use of naloxone in those with cardiac arrest due to opioids is unclear but it may still be used.[111] In those with cardiac arrest due to local anesthetic, lipid emulsion may be used.[111]

Targeted temperature management

Cooling adults after cardiac arrest who have a return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) but no return of consciousness improves outcomes.[78][7] This procedure is called targeted temperature management (previously known as therapeutic hypothermia). People are typically cooled for a 24-hour period, with a target temperature of {{convert|32|-|36|C|F}}.[79] There are a number of methods used to lower the body temperature, such as applying ice packs or cold-water circulating pads directly to the body, or infusing cold saline. This is followed by gradual rewarming over the next 12 to 24 hrs.[80]

Recent meta-analysis found that the use of therapeutic hypothermia after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest is associated with improved survival rates and better neurological outcomes.[78]

Do not resuscitate

Some people choose to avoid aggressive measures at the end of life. A do not resuscitate order (DNR) in the form of an advance health care directive makes it clear that in the event of cardiac arrest, the person does not wish to receive cardiopulmonary resuscitation.[81] Other directives may be made to stipulate the desire for intubation in the event of respiratory failure or, if comfort measures are all that are desired, by stipulating that healthcare providers should "allow natural death".[82]

Chain of survival

Several organizations promote the idea of a chain of survival. The chain consists of the following "links":

  • Early recognition – If possible, recognition of illness before the person develops a cardiac arrest will allow the rescuer to prevent its occurrence. Early recognition that a cardiac arrest has occurred is key to survival – for every minute a patient stays in cardiac arrest, their chances of survival drop by roughly 10%.[43]
  • Early CPR – improves the flow of blood and of oxygen to vital organs, an essential component of treating a cardiac arrest. In particular, by keeping the brain supplied with oxygenated blood, chances of neurological damage are decreased.
  • Early defibrillation – is effective for the management of ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia[43]
  • Early advanced care
  • Early post-resuscitation care which may include percutaneous coronary intervention[83]

If one or more links in the chain are missing or delayed, then the chances of survival drop significantly.

These protocols are often initiated by a code blue, which usually denotes impending or acute onset of cardiac arrest or respiratory failure, although in practice, code blue is often called in less life-threatening situations that require immediate attention from a physician.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

Other

Resuscitation with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation devices has been attempted with better results for in-hospital cardiac arrest (29% survival) than out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (4% survival) in populations selected to benefit most.[84] Cardiac catheterization in those who have survived an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest appears to improve outcomes although high quality evidence is lacking.[85] It is recommended that it is done as soon as possible in those who have had a cardiac arrest with ST elevation due to underlying heart problems.[56]

The precordial thump may be considered in those with witnessed, monitored, unstable ventricular tachycardia (including pulseless VT) if a defibrillator is not immediately ready for use, but it should not delay CPR and shock delivery or be used in those with unwitnessed out of hospital arrest.[86]

Prognosis

The overall chance of survival among those who have cardiac arrest outside hospital is 10%.[87][88] Among those who have an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, 70% occur at home and their survival rate is 6%.[89][90] For those who have an in-hospital cardiac arrest, the survival rate is estimated to be 24%.[91] Among children rates of survival are 3 to 16% in North America.[92] For in hospital cardiac arrest survival to discharge is around 22% with many having a good neurological outcome.[93]

Prognosis is typically assessed 72 hours or more after cardiac arrest.[94] Rates of survival are better in those who someone saw collapse, got bystander CPR, or had either ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation when assessed.[95] Survival among those with Vfib or Vtach is 15 to 23%.[95] Women are more likely to survive cardiac arrest and leave hospital than men.[96]

A 1997 review found rates of survival to discharge of 14% although different studies varied from 0 to 28%.[97] In those over the age of 70 who have a cardiac arrest while in hospital, survival to hospital discharge is less than 20%.[98] How well these individuals are able to manage after leaving hospital is not clear.[98]

A study of survival rates from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest found that 14.6% of those who had received resuscitation by paramedics survived as far as admission to hospital. Of these, 59% died during admission, half of these within the first 24 hours, while 46% survived until discharge from hospital. This reflects an overall survival following cardiac arrest of 6.8%. Of these 89% had normal brain function or mild neurological disability, 8.5% had moderate impairment, and 2% had major neurological disability. Of those who were discharged from hospital, 70% were still alive four years later.[99]

Epidemiology

Based on death certificates, sudden cardiac death accounts for about 15% of all deaths in Western countries.[100] In the United States 326,000 cases of out of hospital and 209,000 cases of in hospital cardiac arrest occur among adults a year.[9] The lifetime risk is three times greater in men (12.3%) than women (4.2%) based on analysis of the Framingham Heart Study.[101] However this gender difference disappeared beyond 85 years of age.[100]

In the United States during pregnancy cardiac arrest occurs in about one in twelve thousand deliveries or 1.8 per 10,000 live births.[111] Rates are lower in Canada.[102]

Society and culture

Names

In many publications the stated or implicit meaning of "sudden cardiac death" is sudden death from cardiac causes.[103] However, sometimes physicians call cardiac arrest "sudden cardiac death" even if the person survives. Thus one can hear mentions of "prior episodes of sudden cardiac death" in a living person.[104]

In 2006 the American Heart Association presented the following definitions of sudden cardiac arrest and sudden cardiac death: "Cardiac arrest is the sudden cessation of cardiac activity so that the victim becomes unresponsive, with no normal breathing and no signs of circulation. If corrective measures are not taken rapidly, this condition progresses to sudden death. Cardiac arrest should be used to signify an event as described above, that is reversed, usually by CPR and/or defibrillation or cardioversion, or cardiac pacing. Sudden cardiac death should not be used to describe events that are not fatal".[105]

Show code

In some medical facilities, the resuscitation team may purposely respond slowly to a person in cardiac arrest, a practice known as "slow code", or may fake the response altogether for the sake of the person's family, a practice known as "show code".[106] This is generally done for people for whom performing CPR will have no medical benefit.[107] Such practices are ethically controversial,[108] and are banned in some jurisdictions.

References

1. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite book|last1=Field|first1=John M.|title=The Textbook of Emergency Cardiovascular Care and CPR|date=2009|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=9780781788991|page=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaOoXdSlT9sC&pg=PA11|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905133735/https://books.google.com/books?id=JaOoXdSlT9sC&pg=PA11|archivedate=2017-09-05|df=}}
2. ^1 2 {{cite web|title=What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Sudden Cardiac Arrest?|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/signs|website=NHLBI|accessdate=16 August 2016|date=June 22, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827190624/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/signs|archivedate=27 August 2016|df=}}
3. ^1 2 {{cite web|title=What Is Sudden Cardiac Arrest?|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda|website=NHLBI|accessdate=16 August 2016|date=June 22, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728031608/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda|archivedate=28 July 2016|df=}}
4. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite web|title=What Causes Sudden Cardiac Arrest?|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/causes|website=NHLBI|accessdate=16 August 2016|date=June 22, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728042233/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/causes|archivedate=28 July 2016|df=}}
5. ^1 {{cite web|title=How Is Sudden Cardiac Arrest Treated?|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/treatment|website=NHLBI|accessdate=16 August 2016|date=June 22, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827184130/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/treatment|archivedate=27 August 2016|df=}}
6. ^{{cite journal|last1=Schenone|first1=AL|last2=Cohen|first2=A|last3=Patarroyo|first3=G|last4=Harper|first4=L|last5=Wang|first5=X|last6=Shishehbor|first6=MH|last7=Menon|first7=V|last8=Duggal|first8=A|title=Therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest: a systematic review/meta-analysis exploring the impact of expanded criteria and targeted temperature.|journal=Resuscitation|date=10 August 2016|pmid=27521472|doi=10.1016/j.resuscitation.2016.07.238|volume=108|pages=102–110}}
7. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Arrich|first=Jasmin|last2=Holzer|first2=Michael|last3=Havel|first3=Christof|last4=Müllner|first4=Marcus|last5=Herkner|first5=Harald|date=2016-02-15|title=Hypothermia for neuroprotection in adults after cardiopulmonary resuscitation|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2|pages=CD004128|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004128.pub4|issn=1469-493X|pmid=26878327}}
8. ^1 2 {{cite web|title=How Can Death Due to Sudden Cardiac Arrest Be Prevented?|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/prevention|website=NHLBI|accessdate=16 August 2016|date=June 22, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827200432/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/prevention|archivedate=27 August 2016|df=}}
9. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite journal|last1=Kronick|first1=SL|last2=Kurz|first2=MC|last3=Lin|first3=S|last4=Edelson|first4=DP|last5=Berg|first5=RA|last6=Billi|first6=JE|last7=Cabanas|first7=JG|last8=Cone|first8=DC|last9=Diercks|first9=DB|last10=Foster|first10=JJ|last11=Meeks|first11=RA|last12=Travers|first12=AH|last13=Welsford|first13=M|title=Part 4: Systems of Care and Continuous Quality Improvement: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|date=3 November 2015|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S397–413|pmid=26472992|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000258}}
10. ^1 2 {{cite web|title=Who Is at Risk for Sudden Cardiac Arrest?|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/atrisk|website=NHLBI|accessdate=16 August 2016|date=June 22, 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823231651/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/atrisk|archivedate=23 August 2016|df=}}
11. ^1 2 3 {{cite book|last1=Adams|first1=James G.|title=Emergency Medicine: Clinical Essentials (Expert Consult – Online)|date=2012|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-1455733941|page=1771|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpoH-KYE93IC&pg=PA1771|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905133735/https://books.google.com/books?id=rpoH-KYE93IC&pg=PA1771|archivedate=2017-09-05|df=}}
12. ^1 {{Cite book|title=Braunwald's heart disease : a textbook of cardiovascular medicine|last=|first=|publisher=Saunders|others=Mann, Douglas L.,, Zipes, Douglas P.,, Libby, Peter,, Bonow, Robert O.,, Braunwald, Eugene.|year=2015|isbn=9781455751341|editor-last=Myerburg|editor-first=Robert J.|edition=Tenth|location=Philadelphia, PA|pages=821–860|chapter=Cardiac Arrest and Sudden Cardiac Death|oclc=890409638}}
13. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/signs|title=What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Sudden Cardiac Arrest?|date=1 April 2011|publisher=National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621171145/https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/signs|archivedate=21 June 2015|deadurl=no|accessdate=2015-06-21|df=}}
14. ^{{cite journal|last=Parnia|first=S|author2=Spearpoint, K|author3=Fenwick, PB|date=August 2007|title=Near death experiences, cognitive function and psychological outcomes of surviving cardiac arrest.|journal=Resuscitation|volume=74|issue=2|pages=215–21|doi=10.1016/j.resuscitation.2007.01.020|pmid=17416449}}
15. ^{{cite book|title=Harrison's principles of internal medicine|author=Jameson, J. N. St C.; Dennis L. Kasper; Harrison, Tinsley Randolph; Braunwald, Eugene; Fauci, Anthony S.; Hauser, Stephen L; Longo, Dan L.|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division|year=2005|isbn=978-0-07-140235-4|location=New York|pages=|doi=|oclc=|accessdate=}}
16. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mountsinai.org/patient-care/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/coronary-artery-disease|title=Mount Sinai – Cardiac arrest|website=|format=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515004036/http://www.mountsinai.org/patient-care/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/coronary-artery-disease|archivedate=2012-05-15|deadurl=no|accessdate=|df=}}
17. ^1 2 {{Cite web|url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pathophysiology-and-etiology-of-sudden-cardiac-arrest?source=see_link#H5|title=Pathophysiology and etiology of sudden cardiac arrest|last=Podrid|first=Philip J|date=2016-08-22|website=www.uptodate.com|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2017-12-03}}
18. ^{{Cite journal|last=Zipes|first=Douglas P.|last2=Camm|first2=A. John|last3=Borggrefe|first3=Martin|last4=Buxton|first4=Alfred E.|last5=Chaitman|first5=Bernard|last6=Fromer|first6=Martin|last7=Gregoratos|first7=Gabriel|last8=Klein|first8=George|last9=Moss|first9=Arthur J.|date=2006-09-05|authorlink9=Arthur J. Moss|title=ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (writing committee to develop Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death): developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association and the Heart Rhythm Society|journal=Circulation|volume=114|issue=10|pages=e385–484|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.178233|issn=1524-4539|pmid=16935995}}
19. ^1 2 {{Cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|date=2002-02-15|title=State-specific mortality from sudden cardiac death--United States, 1999|journal=MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=51|issue=6|pages=123–126|issn=0149-2195|pmid=11898927}}
20. ^1 2 {{Cite journal|last=Zheng|first=Z. J.|last2=Croft|first2=J. B.|last3=Giles|first3=W. H.|last4=Mensah|first4=G. A.|date=2001-10-30|title=Sudden cardiac death in the United States, 1989 to 1998|journal=Circulation|volume=104|issue=18|pages=2158–2163|issn=1524-4539|pmid=11684624|doi=10.1161/hc4301.098254}}
21. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1WifwPEsKQMC&pg=PA460&lpg=PA460|title=Atherothrombosis and Coronary Artery Disease|last=Fuster|first=Valentin|last2=Topol|first2=Eric J.|last3=Nabel|first3=Elizabeth G.|date=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=9780781735834|language=en|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603002043/https://books.google.com/books?id=1WifwPEsKQMC&pg=PA460&lpg=PA460|archivedate=2016-06-03|deadurl=no|df=}}
22. ^{{cite journal|date=October 2001|title=Sudden cardiac death in the United States, 1989 to 1998|url=|journal=Circulation|volume=104|issue=18|pages=2158–63|doi=10.1161/hc4301.098254|pmid=11684624|vauthors=Zheng ZJ, Croft JB, Giles WH, Mensah GA}}
23. ^1 {{cite journal|date=August 1998|title=Sudden coronary death in women|url=|journal=Am. Heart J.|volume=136|issue=2|pages=205–12|doi=10.1053/hj.1998.v136.90226|pmid=9704680|vauthors=Kannel WB, Wilson PW, D'Agostino RB, Cobb J}}
24. ^{{Cite journal|last=Stevens|first=Steven M.|last2=Reinier|first2=Kyndaron|last3=Chugh|first3=Sumeet S.|date=2013|title=Increased Left Ventricular Mass as a Predictor of Sudden Cardiac Death Is it Time to Put it to The Test?|url=http://circep.ahajournals.org/content/6/1/212|deadurl=no|journal=Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=212–217|doi=10.1161/CIRCEP.112.974931|issn=1941-3149|pmc=3596001|pmid=23424223|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806000541/http://circep.ahajournals.org/content/6/1/212|archivedate=2015-08-06|df=}}
25. ^{{Cite journal|year=2011|title=Left Ventricular Hypertrophy: Major Risk Factor in Patients with Hypertension: Update and Practical Clinical Applications|journal=Int J Hypertens|volume=2011|page=495349|doi=10.4061/2011/495349|pmc=3132610|pmid=21755036|vauthors=Katholi RE, Couri DM}}
26. ^{{Cite journal|last=Chugh|first=S. S.|last2=Kelly|first2=K. L.|last3=Titus|first3=J. L.|date=2000-08-08|title=Sudden cardiac death with apparently normal heart|journal=Circulation|volume=102|issue=6|pages=649–654|issn=1524-4539|pmid=10931805|doi=10.1161/01.cir.102.6.649}}
27. ^{{Cite journal|date=1997-01-07|title=Survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with apparently normal heart. Need for definition and standardized clinical evaluation. Consensus Statement of the Joint Steering Committees of the Unexplained Cardiac Arrest Registry of Europe and of the Idiopathic Ventricular Fibrillation Registry of the United States|journal=Circulation|volume=95|issue=1|pages=265–272|issn=0009-7322|pmid=8994445|doi=10.1161/01.cir.95.1.265}}
28. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Drory|first=Y.|last2=Turetz|first2=Y.|last3=Hiss|first3=Y.|last4=Lev|first4=B.|last5=Fisman|first5=E. Z.|last6=Pines|first6=A.|last7=Kramer|first7=M. R.|date=1991-11-15|title=Sudden unexpected death in persons less than 40 years of age|journal=The American Journal of Cardiology|volume=68|issue=13|pages=1388–1392|issn=0002-9149|pmid=1951130|doi=10.1016/0002-9149(91)90251-f}}
29. ^Sudden Cardiac Death {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325174959/http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4741|date=2010-03-25}}
30. ^{{Cite journal|last=Kuisma|first=M.|last2=Alaspää|first2=A.|date=July 1997|title=Out-of-hospital cardiac arrests of non-cardiac origin. Epidemiology and outcome|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=18|issue=7|pages=1122–1128|issn=0195-668X|pmid=9243146|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.eurheartj.a015407}}
31. ^{{cite journal|date=July 1997|title=Out-of-hospital cardiac arrests of non-cardiac origin. Epidemiology and outcome|url=|journal=Eur. Heart J.|volume=18|issue=7|pages=1122–8|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.eurheartj.a015407|pmid=9243146|vauthors=Kuisma M, Alaspää A}}
32. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.resus.org.uk/pages/guide.htm|title=Resuscitation Council (UK) Guidelines 2005|website=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091215230632/http://www.resus.org.uk/pages/guide.htm|archivedate=2009-12-15|deadurl=no|accessdate=|df=}}
33. ^{{cite journal|author1=ECC Committee, Subcommittees and Task Forces of the American Heart Association|date=December 2005|title=2005 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care|url=|journal=Circulation|volume=112|issue=24 Suppl|pages=IV1–203|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.166550|pmid=16314375}}
34. ^{{cite journal|date=January 1998|title=Family history as a risk factor for primary cardiac arrest|url=|journal=Circulation|volume=97|issue=2|pages=155–60|doi=10.1161/01.cir.97.2.155|pmid=9445167|vauthors=Friedlander Y, Siscovick DS, Weinmann S, etal}}
35. ^{{Cite book|title=Harrison's principles of internal medicine.|last=Myerburg|first=Robert J|last2=Castellanos|first2=Agustin|publisher=McGraw-Hill|others=Kasper, Dennis L.,, Fauci, Anthony S., Hauser, Stephen L.,, Longo, Dan L. (Dan Louis), Jameson, J. Larry,, Loscalzo, Joseph|year=2014|isbn=9780071802154|edition=19th|location=New York|pages=|chapter=327. Cardiovascular Collapse, Cardiac Arrest, and Sudden Cardiac Death|oclc=893557976}}
36. ^{{Cite journal|last=Goldenberg|first=Ilan|last2=Jonas|first2=Michael|last3=Tenenbaum|first3=Alexander|last4=Boyko|first4=Valentina|last5=Matetzky|first5=Shlomi|last6=Shotan|first6=Avraham|last7=Behar|first7=Solomon|last8=Reicher-Reiss|first8=Henrietta|last9=Bezafibrate Infarction Prevention Study Group|date=2003-10-27|title=Current smoking, smoking cessation, and the risk of sudden cardiac death in patients with coronary artery disease|journal=Archives of Internal Medicine|volume=163|issue=19|pages=2301–2305|doi=10.1001/archinte.163.19.2301|issn=0003-9926|pmid=14581249}}
37. ^{{Cite journal|title = Mechanisms of sudden cardiac death|journal = Journal of Clinical Investigation|date = 2005|issn = 0021-9738|pmc = 1193893|pmid = 16138184|pages = 2305–2315|volume = 115|issue = 9|doi = 10.1172/JCI26381|first = Michael|last = Rubart|first2 = Douglas P.|last2 = Zipes}}
38. ^{{Cite journal|title = Mechanisms of Sudden Cardiac Death in Myocardial Infarction Survivors Insights From the Randomized Trials of Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators|url = http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/115/18/2451|journal = Circulation|date = 2007|issn = 0009-7322|pmid = 17485594|pages = 2451–2457|volume = 115|issue = 18|doi = 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.683235|language = en|first = T. Jared|last = Bunch|first2 = Stefan H.|last2 = Hohnloser|first3 = Bernard J.|last3 = Gersh|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160801032858/http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/115/18/2451|archivedate = 2016-08-01|df = }}
39. ^{{Cite web |title = Types of Arrhythmia |publisher = National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute |url = http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/arr/types |date = 1 April 2011 |accessdate = 2015-06-21 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150607165144/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/arr/types |archivedate = 7 June 2015 |df = }}
40. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Ochoa FJ, Ramalle-Gómara E, Carpintero JM, García A, Saralegui I |title=Competence of health professionals to check the carotid pulse |journal=Resuscitation |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=173–5 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9715777 |doi= 10.1016/S0300-9572(98)00055-0|url=}}
41. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Bahr J, Klingler H, Panzer W, Rode H, Kettler D |title=Skills of lay people in checking the carotid pulse |journal=Resuscitation |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=23–6 |date=August 1997 |pmid=9259056 |doi= 10.1016/S0300-9572(96)01092-1|url=}}
42. ^1 2 3 {{cite journal|author1=ECC Committee, Subcommittees and Task Forces of the American Heart Association|date=December 2005|title=2005 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care|url=|journal=Circulation|volume=112|issue=24 Suppl|pages=IV1–203|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.166550|pmid=16314375}}
43. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite web |url=http://www.resus.org.uk/pages/guide.htm |title=Resuscitation Council (UK) Guidelines 2005 |website= |accessdate= |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091215230632/http://www.resus.org.uk/pages/guide.htm |archivedate=2009-12-15 |df= }}
44. ^{{cite book |author=British Red Cross; St Andrew's Ambulance Association; St John Ambulance |title=First Aid Manual: The Authorised Manual of St. John Ambulance, St. Andrew's Ambulance Association, and the British Red Cross |publisher=Dorling Kindersley Publishers Ltd |location= |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=978-1-4053-1573-9 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}
45. ^{{cite book|title=ABC of resuscitation|editors=Jasmeet Soar, Gavin D. Perkins, Jerry Nolan.|year=2012|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Chichester, West Sussex|isbn=9781118474853|page=43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNgrOsHjIKEC&pg=PA43|edition=6th|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905133735/https://books.google.com/books?id=vNgrOsHjIKEC&pg=PA43|archivedate=2017-09-05|df=}}
46. ^{{cite journal|last1=Taverny|first1=G|last2=Mimouni|first2=Y|last3=LeDigarcher|first3=A|last4=Chevalier|first4=P|last5=Thijs|first5=L|last6=Wright|first6=JM|last7=Gueyffier|first7=F|title=Antihypertensive pharmacotherapy for prevention of sudden cardiac death in hypertensive individuals.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=10 March 2016|volume=3|pages=CD011745|pmid=26961575|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011745.pub2}}
47. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Kause J, Smith G, Prytherch D, Parr M, Flabouris A, Hillman K |title=A comparison of antecedents to cardiac arrests, deaths and emergency intensive care admissions in Australia and New Zealand, and the United Kingdom—the ACADEMIA study |journal=Resuscitation |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=275–82 |date=September 2004 |pmid=15325446 |doi=10.1016/j.resuscitation.2004.05.016 |url=}}
48. ^1 2 {{Cite journal|last=Members|first=Writing Committee|last2=Epstein|first2=Andrew E.|last3=DiMarco|first3=John P.|last4=Ellenbogen|first4=Kenneth A.|last5=Estes|first5=N. A. Mark|last6=Freedman|first6=Roger A.|last7=Gettes|first7=Leonard S.|last8=Gillinov|first8=A. Marc|last9=Gregoratos|first9=Gabriel|date=2008-05-27|title=ACC/AHA/HRS 2008 Guidelines for Device-Based Therapy of Cardiac Rhythm Abnormalities: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 Guideline Update for Implantation of Cardiac Pacemakers and Antiarrhythmia Devices): Developed in Collaboration With the American Association for Thoracic Surgery and Society of Thoracic Surgeons|url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/117/21/e350|journal=Circulation|language=en|volume=117|issue=21|pages=e350–e408|doi=10.1161/CIRCUALTIONAHA.108.189742|issn=0009-7322|pmid=18483207}}
49. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Shun-Shin|first=Matthew J.|last2=Zheng|first2=Sean L.|last3=Cole|first3=Graham D.|last4=Howard|first4=James P.|last5=Whinnett|first5=Zachary I.|last6=Francis|first6=Darrel P.|date=2017-06-07|title=Implantable cardioverter defibrillators for primary prevention of death in left ventricular dysfunction with and without ischaemic heart disease: a meta-analysis of 8567 patients in the 11 trials|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=38|issue=22|pages=1738–1746|doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehx028|pmid=28329280|pmc=5461475|issn=0195-668X}}
50. ^{{Cite journal|last=Connolly|first=S. J.|last2=Hallstrom|first2=A. P.|last3=Cappato|first3=R.|last4=Schron|first4=E. B.|last5=Kuck|first5=K. H.|last6=Zipes|first6=D. P.|last7=Greene|first7=H. L.|last8=Boczor|first8=S.|last9=Domanski|first9=M.|date=December 2000|title=Meta-analysis of the implantable cardioverter defibrillator secondary prevention trials. AVID, CASH and CIDS studies. Antiarrhythmics vs Implantable Defibrillator study. Cardiac Arrest Study Hamburg . Canadian Implantable Defibrillator Study|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=21|issue=24|pages=2071–2078|doi=10.1053/euhj.2000.2476|issn=0195-668X|pmid=11102258}}
51. ^{{Cite web |title=Omega-3 fatty acids |work=MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia |author=Neil K. Kaneshiro |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/19302.htm |date=2 August 2011 |accessdate=2015-06-21 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621170015/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/19302.htm |archivedate=21 June 2015 |df= }}
52. ^{{Cite journal | title = Association Between Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation and Risk of Major Cardiovascular Disease Events A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal = JAMA | volume = 308 | issue = 10 | pages = 1024–1033 |date=September 2012 | pmid = 22968891 | doi = 10.1001/2012.jama.11374 |author1=Evangelos C. Rizos |author2=Evangelia E. Ntzani |author3=Eftychia Bika |author4=Michael S. Kostapanos |author5=Moses S. Elisaf }}
53. ^{{cite journal |title=2005 American Heart Association (AHA) guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and emergency cardiovascular care (ECC) of pediatric and neonatal patients: pediatric advanced life support |journal=Pediatrics |volume=117 |issue=5 |pages=e1005–28 |date=May 2006 |pmid=16651281 |doi=10.1542/peds.2006-0346 |url= |last1= American Heart |first1= Association}}
54. ^1 {{cite web|author1=Resuscitation Council (UK)|title=Pre-hospital cardiac arrest|url=https://www.resus.org.uk/pages/prehosca.pdf|website=www.resus.org.uk|accessdate=3 September 2014|page=41|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513032323/http://www.resus.org.uk/pages/prehosca.pdf|archivedate=13 May 2015|df=}}
55. ^{{cite web|author1=Resuscitation Council (UK)|title=Comments on the duration of CPR following the publication of 'Duration of resuscitation efforts and survival after in-hospital cardiac arrest: an observational study' Goldberger ZD et al. Lancet.|url=https://www.resus.org.uk/pages/cprdurst.htm|accessdate=3 September 2014|date=5 September 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628095645/http://resus.org.uk/pages/cprdurst.htm|archivedate=28 June 2014|df=}}
56. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 {{cite journal|last1=Neumar|first1=RW|last2=Shuster|first2=M|last3=Callaway|first3=CW|last4=Gent|first4=LM|last5=Atkins|first5=DL|last6=Bhanji|first6=F|last7=Brooks|first7=SC|last8=de Caen|first8=AR|last9=Donnino|first9=MW|last10=Ferrer|first10=JM|last11=Kleinman|first11=ME|last12=Kronick|first12=SL|last13=Lavonas|first13=EJ|last14=Link|first14=MS|last15=Mancini|first15=ME|last16=Morrison|first16=LJ|last17=O'Connor|first17=RE|last18=Samson|first18=RA|last19=Schexnayder|first19=SM|last20=Singletary|first20=EM|last21=Sinz|first21=EH|last22=Travers|first22=AH|last23=Wyckoff|first23=MH|last24=Hazinski|first24=MF|title=Part 1: Executive Summary: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|date=3 November 2015|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S315–67|pmid=26472989|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000252}}
57. ^1 {{cite journal |author=Mutchner L |title=The ABCs of CPR--again |journal=Am J Nurs |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=60–9; quiz 69–70 |date=January 2007 |pmid=17200636 |doi= 10.1097/00000446-200701000-00024|url=}}
58. ^{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=Leigh |last2=Melhuish |first2=Thomas |last3=Holyoak |first3=Rhys |last4=Ryan |first4=Thomas |last5=Kempton |first5=Hannah |last6=Vlok |first6=Ruan |title=Advanced airway management in out of hospital cardiac arrest: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=The American Journal of Emergency Medicine |volume=36 |issue=12 |pages=2298–2306 |date=September 2018 |doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2018.09.045|pmid=30293843 }}
59. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Studnek JR, Thestrup L, Vandeventer S, etal |title=The association between prehospital endotracheal intubation attempts and survival to hospital discharge among out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients |journal=Acad Emerg Med |volume=17 |issue=9 |pages=918–25 |date=September 2010 |pmid=20836771 |doi=10.1111/j.1553-2712.2010.00827.x |url=}}
60. ^{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=L |last2=Melhuish |first2=T |last3=Holyoak |first3=R |last4=Ryan |first4=T |last5=Kempton |first5=H |last6=Vlok |first6=R |title=Advanced airway management in out of hospital cardiac arrest: A systematic review and meta-analysis. |journal=The American Journal of Emergency Medicine |date=December 2018 |volume=36 |issue=12 |pages=2298–2306 |doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2018.09.045 |pmid=30293843}}
61. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Zhan|first1=L|last2=Yang|first2=LJ|last3=Huang|first3=Y|last4=He|first4=Q|last5=Liu|first5=GJ|title=Continuous chest compression versus interrupted chest compression for cardiopulmonary resuscitation of non-asphyxial out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=27 March 2017|volume=3|pages=CD010134|pmid=28349529|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010134.pub2}}
62. ^{{cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=Y|last2=He|first2=Q|last3=Yang|first3=LJ|last4=Liu|first4=GJ|last5=Jones|first5=A|title=Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) plus delayed defibrillation versus immediate defibrillation for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=Sep 12, 2014|volume=9|issue=9|pages=CD009803|pmid=25212112|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009803.pub2}}
63. ^1 2 {{cite journal|last1=de Caen|first1=AR|last2=Berg|first2=MD|last3=Chameides|first3=L|last4=Gooden|first4=CK|last5=Hickey|first5=RW|last6=Scott|first6=HF|last7=Sutton|first7=RM|last8=Tijssen|first8=JA|last9=Topjian|first9=A|date=3 November 2015|title=Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S526–42|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000266|pmid=26473000|pmc=6191296|last10=van der Jagt|first10=ÉW|last11=Schexnayder|first11=SM|last12=Samson|first12=RA}}
64. ^Zoll AED Plus {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110621004342/http://www.lifeassisttraining.com/zollaedplus.html|date=2011-06-21}}
65. ^{{cite journal|author1=Lyon R.M|author2=Cobbe S.M.|author3=Bradley J.M.|author4=Grubb N.R.|display-authors=etal|year=2004|title=Surviving out of hospital cardiac arrest at home: a postcode lottery?|url=|journal=Emergency Medicine Journal|volume=21|issue=5|pages=619–624|doi=10.1136/emj.2003.010363|pmid=15333549|pmc=1726412}}
66. ^{{cite journal|vauthors=Olasveengen TM, Sunde K, Brunborg C, Thowsen J, Steen PA, Wik L |title=Intravenous drug administration during out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a randomized trial |journal=JAMA |volume=302 |issue=20 |pages=2222–9 |date=November 2009 |pmid=19934423 |doi=10.1001/jama.2009.1729 |url=}}
67. ^{{cite journal|last=Lin|first=S|author2=Callaway, CW |author3=Shah, PS |author4=Wagner, JD |author5=Beyene, J |author6=Ziegler, CP |author7= Morrison, LJ |title=Adrenaline for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest resuscitation: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.|journal=Resuscitation|date=Mar 15, 2014|pmid=24642404 |doi=10.1016/j.resuscitation.2014.03.008 |volume=85 |issue=6 |pages=732–40}}
68. ^{{cite journal|last1=Laina|first1=A|last2=Karlis|first2=G|last3=Liakos|first3=A|last4=Georgiopoulos|first4=G|last5=Oikonomou|first5=D|last6=Kouskouni|first6=E|last7=Chalkias|first7=A|last8=Xanthos|first8=T|title=Amiodarone and cardiac arrest: Systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=International Journal of Cardiology|date=9 July 2016|volume=221|pages=780–788|pmid=27434349|doi=10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.07.138}}
69. ^{{cite journal|last1=McLeod|first1=SL|last2=Brignardello-Petersen|first2=R|last3=Worster|first3=A|last4=You|first4=J|last5=Iansavichene|first5=A|last6=Guyatt|first6=G|last7=Cheskes|first7=S|title=Comparative effectiveness of antiarrhythmics for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: A systematic review and network meta-analysis.|journal=Resuscitation|date=14 October 2017|volume=121|pages=90–97|doi=10.1016/j.resuscitation.2017.10.012|pmid=29037886}}
70. ^{{cite journal |last1=Ali |first1=MU |last2=Fitzpatrick-Lewis |first2=D |last3=Kenny |first3=M |last4=Raina |first4=P |last5=Atkins |first5=DL |last6=Soar |first6=J |last7=Nolan |first7=J |last8=Ristagno |first8=G |last9=Sherifali |first9=D |title=Effectiveness of antiarrhythmic drugs for shockable cardiac arrest: A systematic review. |journal=Resuscitation |date=November 2018 |volume=132 |pages=63–72 |doi=10.1016/j.resuscitation.2018.08.025 |pmid=30179691}}
71. ^{{cite journal|last1=Belletti|first1=A|last2=Benedetto|first2=U|last3=Putzu|first3=A|last4=Martino|first4=EA|last5=Biondi-Zoccai|first5=G|last6=Angelini|first6=GD|last7=Zangrillo|first7=A|last8=Landoni|first8=G|title=Vasopressors During Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation. A Network Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials.|journal=Critical Care Medicine|date=May 2018|volume=46|issue=5|pages=e443–e451|doi=10.1097/CCM.0000000000003049|pmid=29652719}}
72. ^{{cite journal|last=Morley|first=PT|title=Drugs during cardiopulmonary resuscitation.|journal=Current Opinion in Critical Care|date=June 2011|volume=17|issue=3|pages=214–8|pmid=21499094|doi=10.1097/MCC.0b013e3283467ee0}}
73. ^{{cite journal|last=Attaran|first=RR|author2=Ewy, GA|title=Epinephrine in resuscitation: curse or cure?|journal=Future Cardiology|date=July 2010|volume=6|issue=4|pages=473–82|pmid=20608820|doi=10.2217/fca.10.24}}
74. ^{{cite journal|last1=Velissaris|first1=D|last2=Karamouzos|first2=V|last3=Pierrakos|first3=C|last4=Koniari|first4=I|last5=Apostolopoulou|first5=C|last6=Karanikolas|first6=M|title=Use of Sodium Bicarbonate in Cardiac Arrest: Current Guidelines and Literature Review.|journal=Journal of Clinical Medicine Research|date=April 2016|volume=8|issue=4|pages=277–83|pmid=26985247|doi=10.14740/jocmr2456w|pmc=4780490}}
75. ^{{cite journal|last=Neumar|first=RW |author2=Otto, CW |author3=Link, MS |author4=Kronick, SL |author5=Shuster, M |author6=Callaway, CW |author7=Kudenchuk, PJ |author8=Ornato, JP |author9=McNally, B |author10=Silvers, SM |author11=Passman, RS |author12=White, RD |author13=Hess, EP |author14=Tang, W |author15=Davis, D |author16=Sinz, E |author17=Morrison, LJ |title=Part 8: adult advanced cardiovascular life support: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|date=Nov 2, 2010|volume=122|issue=18 Suppl 3|pages=S729–67|pmid=20956224|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.970988}}
76. ^{{cite journal|last1=Sanfilippo|first1=F|last2=Corredor|first2=C|last3=Santonocito|first3=C|last4=Panarello|first4=G|last5=Arcadipane|first5=A|last6=Ristagno|first6=G|last7=Pellis|first7=T|title=Amiodarone or lidocaine for cardiac arrest: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=Resuscitation|date=October 2016|volume=107|pages=31–7|pmid=27496262|doi=10.1016/j.resuscitation.2016.07.235}}
77. ^{{cite journal|last=Perrott|first=J|author2=Henneberry, RJ |author3=Zed, PJ |title=Thrombolytics for cardiac arrest: case report and systematic review of controlled trials.|journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy|date=December 2010|volume=44|issue=12|pages=2007–13|pmid=21119096|doi=10.1345/aph.1P364}}
78. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Schenone|first=Aldo L.|last2=Cohen|first2=Aaron|last3=Patarroyo|first3=Gabriel|last4=Harper|first4=Logan|last5=Wang|first5=XiaoFeng|last6=Shishehbor|first6=Mehdi H.|last7=Menon|first7=Venu|last8=Duggal|first8=Abhijit|date=November 2016|title=Therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest: A systematic review/meta-analysis exploring the impact of expanded criteria and targeted temperature|journal=Resuscitation|volume=108|pages=102–110|doi=10.1016/j.resuscitation.2016.07.238|issn=1873-1570|pmid=27521472}}
79. ^{{cite journal|last1=Neumar|first1=RW|last2=Shuster|first2=M|last3=Callaway|first3=CW|last4=Gent|first4=LM|last5=Atkins|first5=DL|last6=Bhanji|first6=F|last7=Brooks|first7=SC|last8=de Caen|first8=AR|last9=Donnino|first9=MW|date=3 November 2015|title=Part 1: Executive Summary: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S315–67|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000252|pmid=26472989|last10=Ferrer|first10=JM|last11=Kleinman|first11=ME|last12=Kronick|first12=SL|last13=Lavonas|first13=EJ|last14=Link|first14=MS|last15=Mancini|first15=ME|last16=Morrison|first16=LJ|last17=O'Connor|first17=RE|last18=Samson|first18=RA|last19=Schexnayder|first19=SM|last20=Singletary|first20=EM|last21=Sinz|first21=EH|last22=Travers|first22=AH|last23=Wyckoff|first23=MH|last24=Hazinski|first24=MF}}
80. ^{{Cite book|title=Therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest : clinical application and management|date=2012|publisher=Springer|others=Lundbye, Justin B.|isbn=9781447129509|location=London|oclc=802346256}}
81. ^{{cite journal|last=Loertscher|first=L |author2=Reed, DA |author3=Bannon, MP |author4=Mueller, PS|title=Cardiopulmonary resuscitation and do-not-resuscitate orders: a guide for clinicians|journal=The American Journal of Medicine|date=January 2010|volume=123|issue=1|pages=4–9|pmid=20102982|doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2009.05.029}}
82. ^{{cite journal|last=Knox|first=C|author2=Vereb, JA|title=Allow natural death: a more humane approach to discussing end-of-life directives|journal=Journal of Emergency Nursing|date=December 2005|volume=31|issue=6|pages=560–1|pmid=16308044|doi=10.1016/j.jen.2005.06.020}}
83. ^{{cite journal|last1=Millin|first1=MG|last2=Comer|first2=AC|last3=Nable|first3=JV|last4=Johnston|first4=PV|last5=Lawner|first5=BJ|last6=Woltman|first6=N|last7=Levy|first7=MJ|last8=Seaman|first8=KG|last9=Hirshon|first9=JM|title=Patients without ST elevation after return of spontaneous circulation may benefit from emergent percutaneous intervention: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=Resuscitation|date=15 September 2016|volume=108|pages=54–60|pmid=27640933|doi=10.1016/j.resuscitation.2016.09.004}}
84. ^{{cite journal|last=Lehot|first=JJ|author2=Long-Him-Nam, N |author3=Bastien, O |title=[Extracorporeal life support for treating cardiac arrest].|journal=Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine|date=December 2011|volume=195|issue=9|pages=2025–33; discussion 2033–6|pmid=22930866}}
85. ^{{Cite journal | last1 = Camuglia | first1 = AC. | last2 = Randhawa | first2 = VK. | last3 = Lavi | first3 = S. | last4 = Walters | first4 = DL. | title = Cardiac catheterization is associated with superior outcomes for survivors of out of hospital cardiac arrest: Review and meta-analysis. | journal = Resuscitation | volume = 85| issue = 11| pages = 1533–1540|date=Sep 2014 | doi = 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2014.08.025 | pmid = 25195073 }}
86. ^{{cite journal|last=Cave|first=DM |author2=Gazmuri, RJ |author3=Otto, CW |author4=Nadkarni, VM |author5=Cheng, A |author6=Brooks, SC |author7=Daya, M |author8=Sutton, RM |author9=Branson, R |author10=Hazinski, MF|title=Part 7: CPR techniques and devices: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|date=2010-11-02|volume=122|issue=18 Suppl 3|pages=S720–8|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.970970|pmid=20956223|pmc=3741663}}
87. ^{{Cite journal|last=Benjamin|first=Emelia J.|last2=Blaha|first2=Michael J.|last3=Chiuve|first3=Stephanie E.|last4=Cushman|first4=Mary|last5=Das|first5=Sandeep R.|last6=Deo|first6=Rajat|last7=de Ferranti|first7=Sarah D.|last8=Floyd|first8=James|last9=Fornage|first9=Myriam|date=2017-03-07|title=Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2017 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association|journal=Circulation|volume=135|issue=10|pages=e146–e603|doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000485|issn=1524-4539|pmc=5408160|pmid=28122885}}
88. ^{{Cite journal|last=Kusumoto|first=Fred M.|last2=Bailey|first2=Kent R.|last3=Chaouki|first3=Ahmad Sami|last4=Deshmukh|first4=Abhishek J.|last5=Gautam|first5=Sandeep|last6=Kim|first6=Robert J.|last7=Kramer|first7=Daniel B.|last8=Lambrakos|first8=Litsa K.|last9=Nasser|first9=Naseer H.|date=2017-01-01|title=Systematic Review for the 2017 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society|url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2017/10/30/CIR.0000000000000550|journal=Circulation|volume=138|issue=13|language=en|pages=e392–e414|doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000550|issn=0009-7322|pmid=29084732}}
89. ^{{Cite book|title=Strategies to Improve Cardiac Arrest Survival: A Time to Act|last=Medicine|first=Institute of|date=2015-06-30|isbn=9780309371995|language=en|doi=10.17226/21723|pmid = 26225413}}
90. ^{{Cite journal|last=Jollis|first=James G.|last2=Granger|first2=Christopher B.|date=2016-12-20|title=Improving Care of Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest: Next Steps|url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/134/25/2040|journal=Circulation|language=en|volume=134|issue=25|pages=2040–2042|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.025818|issn=0009-7322|pmid=27994023}}
91. ^{{Cite journal|last=Daya|first=Mohamud R.|last2=Schmicker|first2=Robert H.|last3=May|first3=Susanne|last4=Morrison|first4=Laurie J.|date=2015|title=Current burden of cardiac arrest in the United States: report from the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium. Paper commissioned by the Committee on the Treatment of Cardiac Arrest: Current Status and Future Directions|url=http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/~/media/Files/Report%20Files/2015/ROC.pdf|journal=|volume=|pages=|via=}}
92. ^{{cite journal|last1=de Caen|first1=AR|last2=Berg|first2=MD|last3=Chameides|first3=L|last4=Gooden|first4=CK|last5=Hickey|first5=RW|last6=Scott|first6=HF|last7=Sutton|first7=RM|last8=Tijssen|first8=JA|last9=Topjian|first9=A|date=3 November 2015|title=Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S526–42|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000266|pmid=26473000|pmc=6191296|last10=van der Jagt|first10=ÉW|last11=Schexnayder|first11=SM|last12=Samson|first12=RA}}
93. ^{{cite journal|last1=Kronick|first1=SL|last2=Kurz|first2=MC|last3=Lin|first3=S|last4=Edelson|first4=DP|last5=Berg|first5=RA|last6=Billi|first6=JE|last7=Cabanas|first7=JG|last8=Cone|first8=DC|last9=Diercks|first9=DB|date=3 November 2015|title=Part 4: Systems of Care and Continuous Quality Improvement: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S397–413|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000258|pmid=26472992|last10=Foster|first10=JJ|last11=Meeks|first11=RA|last12=Travers|first12=AH|last13=Welsford|first13=M}}
94. ^{{cite journal|last1=Neumar|first1=RW|last2=Shuster|first2=M|last3=Callaway|first3=CW|last4=Gent|first4=LM|last5=Atkins|first5=DL|last6=Bhanji|first6=F|last7=Brooks|first7=SC|last8=de Caen|first8=AR|last9=Donnino|first9=MW|date=3 November 2015|title=Part 1: Executive Summary: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S315–67|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000252|pmid=26472989|last10=Ferrer|first10=JM|last11=Kleinman|first11=ME|last12=Kronick|first12=SL|last13=Lavonas|first13=EJ|last14=Link|first14=MS|last15=Mancini|first15=ME|last16=Morrison|first16=LJ|last17=O'Connor|first17=RE|last18=Samson|first18=RA|last19=Schexnayder|first19=SM|last20=Singletary|first20=EM|last21=Sinz|first21=EH|last22=Travers|first22=AH|last23=Wyckoff|first23=MH|last24=Hazinski|first24=MF}}
95. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Sasson|first1=C|last2=Rogers|first2=MA|last3=Dahl|first3=J|last4=Kellermann|first4=AL|date=January 2010|title=Predictors of survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes|volume=3|issue=1|pages=63–81|doi=10.1161/circoutcomes.109.889576|pmid=20123673}}
96. ^{{cite journal|last1=Bougouin|first1=W|last2=Mustafic|first2=H|last3=Marijon|first3=E|last4=Murad|first4=MH|last5=Dumas|first5=F|last6=Barbouttis|first6=A|last7=Jabre|first7=P|last8=Beganton|first8=F|last9=Empana|first9=JP|date=September 2015|title=Gender and survival after sudden cardiac arrest: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=Resuscitation|volume=94|pages=55–60|doi=10.1016/j.resuscitation.2015.06.018|pmid=26143159|last10=Celermajer|first10=DS|last11=Cariou|first11=A|last12=Jouven|first12=X}}
97. ^{{cite journal|author=Ballew KA|date=May 1997|title=Cardiopulmonary resuscitation|url=|journal=BMJ|volume=314|issue=7092|pages=1462–5|doi=10.1136/bmj.314.7092.1462|pmc=2126720|pmid=9167565}}
98. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=van Gijn|first1=MS|last2=Frijns|first2=D|last3=van de Glind|first3=EM|last4=C van Munster|first4=B|last5=Hamaker|first5=ME|date=Jul 2014|title=The chance of survival and the functional outcome after in-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation in older people: a systematic review.|journal=Age and Ageing|volume=43|issue=4|pages=456–63|doi=10.1093/ageing/afu035|pmid=24760957}}
99. ^{{cite journal|date=June 1996|title=Survival of 1476 patients initially resuscitated from out of hospital cardiac arrest|url=|journal=BMJ|volume=312|issue=7047|pages=1633–7|doi=10.1136/bmj.312.7047.1633|pmc=2351362|pmid=8664715|vauthors=Cobbe SM, Dalziel K, Ford I, Marsden AK}}
100. ^1 {{cite journal |vauthors=Zheng ZJ, Croft JB, Giles WH, Mensah GA |title=Sudden cardiac death in the United States, 1989 to 1998 |journal=Circulation |volume=104 |issue=18 |pages=2158–63 |date=October 2001 |pmid=11684624 |doi= 10.1161/hc4301.098254|url=}}
101. ^{{cite web |url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/meeting_abstract/120/18_MeetingAbstracts/S416-c?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=lloyd-jones&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=10&sortspec=date&resourcetype=HWCIT |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608182635/http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/meeting_abstract/120/18_MeetingAbstracts/S416-c?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=lloyd-jones&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=10&sortspec=date&resourcetype=HWCIT |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2011-06-08 |title=Abstract 969: Lifetime Risk for Sudden Cardiac Death at Selected Index Ages and by Risk Factor Strata and Race: Cardiovascular Lifetime Risk Pooling Project – Lloyd-Jones et al. 120 (10018): S416 – Circulation |format= |website= |accessdate=}}
102. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 {{cite journal|last1=Lavonas|first1=EJ|last2=Drennan|first2=IR|last3=Gabrielli|first3=A|last4=Heffner|first4=AC|last5=Hoyte|first5=CO|last6=Orkin|first6=AM|last7=Sawyer|first7=KN|last8=Donnino|first8=MW|title=Part 10: Special Circumstances of Resuscitation: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|date=3 November 2015|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S501–18|pmid=26472998|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000264}}
103. ^{{Citation |author=Elsevier |authorlink=Elsevier |title=Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary |publisher=Elsevier |url=http://dorlands.com/ |postscript=.}}
104. ^{{Citation |last=Porter |first=I |last2=Vacek |first2=J |year=2008 |title=Single ventricle with persistent truncus arteriosus as two rare entities in an adult patient: a case report |journal=J Med Case Reports |volume=2 |issue= |pages=184 |pmid=18513397 |pmc=2424060 |doi=10.1186/1752-1947-2-184 |postscript=.}}
105. ^{{Cite journal|last=Buxton|first=Alfred E.|last2=Calkins|first2=Hugh|last3=Callans|first3=David J.|last4=DiMarco|first4=John P.|last5=Fisher|first5=John D.|last6=Greene|first6=H. Leon|last7=Haines|first7=David E.|last8=Hayes|first8=David L.|last9=Heidenreich|first9=Paul A.|date=2006-12-05|title=ACC/AHA/HRS 2006 key data elements and definitions for electrophysiological studies and procedures: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Data Standards (ACC/AHA/HRS Writing Committee to Develop Data Standards on Electrophysiology)|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=48|issue=11|pages=2360–2396|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2006.09.020|issn=1558-3597|pmid=17161282}}
106. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/22/opinion/slow-codes-show-codes-and-death.html|title=Slow Codes, Show Codes and Death|newspaper=The New York Times |publisher=The New York Times Company|date=22 August 1987|accessdate=2013-04-06|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518042545/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/22/opinion/slow-codes-show-codes-and-death.html|archivedate=18 May 2013|df=}}
107. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cpso.on.ca/policies/policies/default.aspx?ID=1582|title=Decision-making for the End of Life|others=Physician Advisory Service|publisher=College of Physicians and Surgeons of Ontario|date=May 2006|accessdate=2013-04-06|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509161003/http://www.cpso.on.ca/policies/policies/default.aspx?ID=1582|archivedate=2013-05-09|df=}}
108. ^{{cite book|url=http://www.nursingcenter.com/lnc/journalarticle?Article_ID=437848|title="Slow" Code: Perspectives of a Physician and Critical Care Nurse|last1=DePalma|first1=Judith A.|last2=Miller|first2=Scott|last3=Ozanich|first3=Evelyn|last4=Yancich|first4=Lynne M.|work=Critical Care Nursing Quarterly|volume=22|issue=3|pages=89–99|publisher=Lippincott Williams and Wilkins|date=November 1999|issn=1550-5111|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328192748/http://www.nursingcenter.com/lnc/journalarticle?Article_ID=437848|archivedate=2013-03-28|df=}}
109. ^,

External links

{{Medical condition classification and resources
| DiseasesDB = 2095
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|I|46||i|30}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|427.5}}
| ICDO =
| OMIM =
| MedlinePlus =
| eMedicineSubj =
| eMedicineTopic =
| MeshID = D006323
}}{{sisterlinks|display=Cardiac arrest}}
  • The Center for Resuscitation Science at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania
{{Circulatory system pathology}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Cardiac Arrest}}

5 : Cardiac arrhythmia|Medical emergencies|Causes of death|RTT|RTTEM
随便看

　

开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。

　

Copyright © 2023 OENC.NET All Rights Reserved
京ICP备2021023879号 更新时间：2024/11/12 4:15:10