1. Background: the tenth century Cumbrian realm

2. Cathróe amongst the Cumbrians

3. English aggression and Scottish overlordship

4. Cumbrian and Scottish contention

5. Rhydderch, son of Dyfnwal

6. Amongst an assembly of kings

7. Death and descendants

8. Notes

9. Citations

10. References
     Primary sources  Secondary sources 

Dyfnwal ab Owain (died 975) was a tenth-century King of Strathclyde.{{#tag:ref|Since the 2000s academics have accorded Dyfnwal various patronyms in English secondary sources: Domnall mac Eogain,^[3] Dunmail map Owain,^[4] Dwnwallon ab Owain,^[5] Dyfnwal ab Owain,^[6] and Dyfnwal map Ywain.^[7] Likewise, since the 1990s academics have accorded Dyfnwal various personal names in English secondary sources: Domnaldus,^[8] Domnall,^[9] Donald,^[10] Dovenald,^[11] Dufnal,^[12] Dumnagual,^[13] Dunguallon,^[14] Dunmail,^[15] Dunwallon,^[16] Dyfnal,^[17] Dyfnwal,^[18] Dyfnwallon,^[19] and Dwnwallon.^[5]|group=note}} He was a son of Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde, and seems to have been a member of the royal dynasty of Strathclyde. At some point in the ninth- or tenth century, the Kingdom of Strathclyde expanded substantially southwards. As a result of this extension far beyond the valley of the River Clyde, the realm became known as the Kingdom of Cumbria. By 927, the kingdom seems to have reached as far south as the River Eamont.

Dyfnwal appears to have reigned between the 930s and the 970s. He is first attested in the 940s, when he is recorded associated with the ecclesiast Cathróe on the latter's journey to Continental Europe. At the midpoint of the decade, the Cumbrian kingdom was ravaged by the forces of Edmund, King of the English. Two of Dyfnwal's sons are said to have been blinded by the English, which could indicate that Dyfnwal had broken a pledge to his southern counterpart. One possibility is that he had harboured insular Scandinavian opponents of Edmund. The latter is recorded to have handed over control of the Cumbrian realm to Máel Coluim mac Domnaill, King of Alba. How much authority the Scots enjoyed over the Cumbrian realm is uncertain.

In 971, the reigning Cuilén mac Illuilb, King of Alba was slain by Rhydderch ap Dyfnwal. At some point after this act, Cuilén's eventual successor, Cináed mac Maíl Choluim, King of Alba, is recorded to have penetrated deep into Cumbrian territory, possibly as a retaliatory act. The following year, the reigning Edgar, King of the English held a remarkable assembly at Chester which numerous northern kings seem to have attended. Both Dyfnwal and his son, Máel Coluim, appear to have attended this assembly. The latter is styled King of the Cumbrians in the context of this meeting, which might indicate that Dyfnwal had previously abdicated the throne.

Dyfnwal is recorded to have died in 975 whilst undertaking a pilgrimage to Rome. Quite when he gave up the throne is unknown. One possibility is that Rhydderch had succeeded him before the killing of Cuilén. Another possibility is that the apparent retaliatory raid by Cináed marked the end of Dyfnwal's kingship. It is also possible that he held on to power until 973 or 975. In any event, Máel Coluim appears to have been succeeded by another son of Dyfnwal named Owain, who is recorded to have died in 1015. The later Owain Foel, King of Strathclyde, who is attested in 1018, may well be a grandson of Dyfnwal. Dyfnwal is likely the eponym of Dunmail Raise in England, and possibly Cardonald, Dundonald/Dundonald Castle in Scotland.

Background: the tenth century Cumbrian realm

For hundreds of years until the late ninth century, the power centre of the Kingdom of Al Clud was the fortress of Al Clud ("Rock of the Clyde").^[20] In 870, this British stronghold was seized by Irish-based Scandinavians,^[21] after which the centre of the realm seems to have relocated further up the River Clyde, and the kingdom itself began to bear the name of the valley of the River Clyde, Ystrad Clud (Strathclyde).^[22] The kingdom's new capital may have been situated in the vicinity of Partick.^[23] and Govan which straddle the River Clyde,^[24] The realm's new hinterland appears to have encompassed the valley and the region of modern Renfrewshire, which may explain this change in terminology.^[25]

At some point after the loss of Al Clud, the Kingdom of Strathclyde appears to have undergone a period of expansion.^[27] Although the precise chronology is uncertain, by 927 the southern frontier appears to have reached the River Eamont, close to Penrith.^[28] The catalyst for this southern extension may have been the dramatic decline of the Kingdom of Northumbria at the hands of conquering Scandinavians,^[29] and the expansion may have been facilitated by cooperation between the Britons and the insular Scandinavians in the late ninth- or early tenth century.^[30] Over time, the Kingdom of Strathclyde increasingly came to be known as the Kingdom of Cumbria reflecting its expansion far beyond the Clyde valley.^[31]{{#tag:ref|By about this time, the Cumbrian kingdom appears to have comprised much of modern Lanarkshire, Dunbartonshire, Renfrewshire, Stirlingshire, Peebleshire, West Lothian, Mid Lothian, eastern Dumfriesshire, and Cumberland.^[32] The Old English {{lang|ang|Cumbras}} is cognate with the Welsh {{lang|cy|Cymry}},^[33] a designation likely used by both the northern Britons and the more southerly Britons (the Welsh).^[34] Examples of the new terminology accorded to the northern realm include {{lang|ang|Cumbra land}} and {{lang|la|terra Cumbrorum}}, meaning "land of the Cumbrians".^[35] Such 'Cumbrian' nomenclature is found in royal designations, suggesting that it reflected the realm's political expansion. By the mid tenth century, the 'Strathclyde' terminology seems to have been mostly superseded.^[36] The expansion of the Cumbrian kingdom may be perceptible in some of the place names of southern Scotland and northern England.^[37]|group=note}}

Dyfnwal was a son of Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde (fl. 934).^[41] The names of the latter and of his apparent descendants suggest that they were indeed members of the royal kindred of Strathclyde.^[42] Sons of Dyfnwal seem to include Rhydderch (fl. 971),^[43] Máel Coluim,^[44] and Owain.^[45] The name of Dyfnwal's son Máel Coluim is Gaelic, and may be evidence of a marriage alliance between his family and the neighbouring royal Alpínid dynasty of the Scottish Kingdom of Alba.^[46] Dyfnwal's father is attested in 934.^[47] Although Dyfnwal's father may well be identical to the Cumbrian monarch recorded to have fought at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937,^[48] the sources that note this king fail to identify him by name.^[49] Dyfnwal's own reign, therefore, may have stretched from about the 930s to the 970s.^[50]{{#tag:ref|Only three kings are specifically termed "King of the Cumbrians" in historical sources: Dyfnwal's father, Dyfnwal himself, and Dyfnwal's son, Máel Coluim.^[51]|group=note}}

Cathróe amongst the Cumbrians

Dyfnwal is attested by the tenth-century Life of St Cathróe, which appears indicate that he was established as king by at least the 940s. According to this source, when Cathróe left the realm of Custantín mac Áeda, King of Alba at about this time, he was granted safe passage through the lands of the Cumbrians by Dyfnwal because the two men were related. Dyfnwal thereupon had Cathróe escorted through his kingdom to the frontier of the Scandinavian-controlled Northumbrian territory.^[53] The Life of St Cathróe locates this southern frontier to the {{lang|la|civitas}} of {{lang|la|Loida}}. One possibility is that this refers to Leeds. If correct, this could indicate that the Cumbrian realm stretched towards this settlement, and would further evince the general southward expansion of the kingdom.^[54] Another possibility is that {{lang|la|Loida}} refers to Leath Ward in Cumberland,^[55] or to a settlement in the Lowther valley, not terribly from where the River Eamont flows.^[56]

The Life of St Cathróe identifies Cathróe's parents as Fochereach and Bania.^[60] Whilst the former's name is Gaelic, the latter's name could be either Gaelic or British,^[61] and Cathróe's own name could be either Pictish^[7] or British.^[62] The fact that Cathróe is stated to have been related to Dyfnwal could indicate that the former's ancestors included a Briton who possessed a genealogical connection with the royal Cumbrian dynasty,^[63] or that Dyfnwal possessed Scottish ancestry, or else that the families of Cathróe and Dyfnwal were merely connected by way of a marriage.^[61] Cathróe is also said by the source to have been related to the wife of a certain King of York named Erich.^[64] Although the latter may be identical to Eiríkr Haraldsson—a man who is generally thought to be identical to the Norwegian dynast Eiríkr blóðøx^[65]—this man is not otherwise attested by insular sources until 947, and Northumbria itself appears to have been ruled by the Uí Ímair dynasts Amlaíb mac Gofraid and Amlaíb Cúarán during the time of Cathróe's journey.^[66] Whilst it is possible that Erich actually refers to Amlaíb mac Gofraid,^[7] if he instead refers to Eiríkr Haraldsson, it could be evidence that the latter had been based in the Solway region whilst the Uí Ímair held power in Northumbria,^[67] or that the latter indeed held power in Northumbria as early as about 946.^[68]{{#tag:ref|There is reason to suspect that Eiríkr blóðøx and Eiríkr Haraldsson have been conflated,^[69] and that the latter man was actually a member of the insular Uí Ímair.^[70] For example, Scandinavian sources fail to accord Eiríkr blóðøx an insular wife as laid out by Life of St Cathróe. The record of this marriage is some of the evidence hinting that Eiríkr blóðøx has been erroneously linked with Northumbria since the twelfth century.^[71]|group=note}}

English aggression and Scottish overlordship

In 945, the "A" version of the eleventh- to thirteenth-century Annales Cambriæ,^[73] and the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Brut y Tywysogyon reveal that the Cumbrian realm was wasted by the English.^[74] The ninth- to twelfth-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle offers more information, and relates that Edmund I, King of the English harried across the land of the Cumbrians, and {{lang|ang|let}} the region to Máel Coluim mac Domnaill, King of Alba.^[75] Similarly, the twelfth-century Historia Anglorum records that the English ravaged the realm, and that Edmund commended the lands to Máel Coluim mac Domnaill who had agreed to assist him by land and sea.^[76] According to the version of events preserved by the thirteenth-century Wendover^[77] and Paris versions of Flores historiarum, Edmund was assisted in the campaign by Hywel Dda, King of Dyfed, and had two of Dyfnwal's sons blinded.^[78] If the latter claim is to be believed, it could reveal that the two princes had been English hostages before hostilities broke out, or perhaps prisoners captured in the midst of the campaign.^[79]{{#tag:ref|The ritual blinding of kings was not an unknown act in contemporary Britain and Ireland,^[80] and it is possible that Edmund may have also meant to deprive Dyfnwal of a royal heir.^[81]|group=note}} The gruesome fate inflicted upon these sons could reveal that their father was regarded to have broken certain pledges rendered to the English.^[82] One possibility is that Dyfnwal was punished for harbouring insular Scandinavian potentates^[83] such as Amlaíb Cúarán.^[84] The latter is certainly recorded to have been driven from Northumbria by the English the year before.^[85] He could well have taken refuge amongst the Cumbrians,^[86] or may have been attempting to construct a power base in the Cumbrian periphery.^[87] The close working relationship between Edmund and Máel Coluim mac Domnaill suggests that Amlaíb Cúarán was unlikely to have been harboured by the Scots during this period.^[88] Edmund's strike upon Dyfnwal's realm, therefore, seems to have been undertaken as a means to break a Cumbrian-Scandinavian alliance,^[89] and to limit the threat of an insular Scandinavian counter offensive from the Forth-Clyde region.^[90] The southward expansion of the Cumbrian realm—an extension possibly enabled by the insular Scandinavian power—may have also factored into the invasion, with the English clawing back lost territories.^[91] Whatever lay behind the campaign, it is possible that it was utilised by the English Cerdicing dynasty as a way to overawe and intimidate neighbouring potentates.^[92]

Although the Wendover version of Flores historiarum alleges that Máel Coluim mac Domnaill was given Cumbrian territory to hold as a fief from the English, the terminology employed by the more reliable Anglo-Saxon Chronicle seems to suggest that Edmund merely surrendered or granted the region to him,^[94] or that he merely recognised certain rights of the Scots in the region (such as the right to tribute).^[95] Edmund, therefore, may have allowed his Scottish counterpart to collect tribute from the Cumbrians in return for keeping them in check and for lending Edmund military assistance.^[96] It is possible that the territory in question corresponds to the region around Carlisle—roughly modern-day Cumberland—which in turn could reveal that the Scots were already in possession of the kingdom's more northerly lands.^[97] It is conceivable that the Scots were allowed authority over Cumbrian territory because it was too far to be overseen effectively by the English themselves.^[98] As such, it may have been recognised that the Cumbrian territories were situated within the Alpínid sphere of influence rather than that of the Cerdicings.^[99] In any event, it is uncertain what authority Máel Coluim mac Domnaill enjoyed over the Cumbrians. Although it is possible that there was a temporary Scottish takeover of the realm,^[100] Dyfnwal lived on for decades, and there were certainly later kings.^[101] In fact, the Wendover version Flores historiarum reveals that the Cumbrians were ruled by a king the year after Edmund's invasion.^[102] The concord between the English and the Scots could have been precipitated by the former as a way of further securing their northern frontier from the threat of insular Scandinavians.^[103] Similarly, the English campaign against the Cumbrians may have been undertaken in order to isolate the Scots from an alliance with the Scandinavians.^[104] In this way, Edmund's conquest and grant of Cumbrian territories to his Scottish counterpart may have been a way of winning the latter's obeisance.^[105]

Edmund was assassinated in 946, and succeeded by his brother Eadred, a monarch who soon after made a show of force against opposition in Northumbria,^[107] and received a renewal of oaths from his Scottish counterpart.^[108] In about 949/950, Máel Coluim mac Domnaill is recorded to have raided into Northumbria, perhaps against the retrenched forces of Eadred's Scandinavian opponents.^[109] Whilst it is possible that this event was undertaken in the context of compensation for the English campaigning against the Cumbrians in 946,^[110] an alternate possibility is that this Scottish invasion was instead an opportunistic attempt to extract tribute from the Northumbrian ruler Osulf (fl. 946–950), rather than the York-based Scandinavians.^[111]

In 952, the seventeenth-century Annals of the Four Masters^[112] and the fifteenth- to sixteenth-century Annals of Ulster appear to report an attack upon the Scandinavians of Northumbria by an alliance of English, Scots, and Cumbrians.^[113] If these two annal-entries indeed refer to Cumbrians rather than Welshmen, it would appear to indicate that the former—presumably led by Dyfnwal himself—were supporting the cause of the English with the Scots.^[114] One possibility is that the annal-entries record the clash of this coalition against the forces of Eiríkr, a man who was finally overwhelmed and slain two years later.^[115]

There is also reason to suspect that a man other than Dyfnwal ruled as king in the wake of Edmund's 945 campaign. For instance, a certain Cadmon is recorded to have witnessed two royal charters of Edmund's successor, Eadred—one in 946 and another in 949—which could be evidence that Cadmon was then the ruling Cumbrian monarch.^[117] There may be evidence indicating that, from about the time of the campaign until at least 958, the English regarded the land of the Cumbrians to be a part of the English realm.^[118] For instance, a charter apparently issued upon Eadred's coronation—the first of the two witnessed by Cadmon—accords Eadred the title "king of the Anglo-Saxons, Northumbrians, pagans, and Britons";^[119] whilst a 958 charter of Eadred's royal successor Edgar, accords the latter kingship over "the Mercians, Northumbrians and Britons".^[120] The fact that the acta of Edmund, Eadred, and Edgar fail to record the presence of Dyfnwal could be evidence of English rule over the Cumbrians, who may have been in turn administered by English-aligned agents.^[121]

Cumbrian and Scottish contention

Máel Coluim mac Domnaill was slain in 954, and succeeded by Illulb mac Custantín.^[123] At some point during the latter's reign, the Scots permanently acquired Edinburgh from the English,^[124] as partly evidenced by the ninth- to twelfth-century Chronicle of the Kings of Alba.^[125] Confirmation of this conquest seems to be preserved by the twelfth-century Historia regum Anglorum, a source which states that, during the reign of Edgar, King of the English, the Northumbrian frontier extended as far as the {{lang|la|Tinæ}}, a waterway which seems to refer to the River Tyne in Lothian.^[126] The acquisition of Edinburgh, and extension into Lothian itself, may well to have taken place during the reign of the embattled and unpopular Eadwig, King of the English.^[127] Illulb's attack may be evidenced by passages preserved by the twelfth-century Prophecy of Berchán which not only note "woe" inflicted upon the Britons and English, but also the conquest of foreign territories by way of Scottish military might.^[128] The notice of Britons in this text could be evidence that Illulb campaigned against Cumbrian-controlled territories.^[129] Such conflict may have meant that the apparent Cumbrian extension southwards was mirrored by movement eastwards. One possibility is that the Scots seized Edinburgh not from the English but from Cumbrians who had temporarily taken possession of it. Certainly, the fortress of Edinburgh had anciently been a British stronghold.^[130]

Rhydderch, son of Dyfnwal

After Illulb's death in 962, the Scottish kingship appears to have been taken up by Dub mac Maíl Choluim, a man who was in turn replaced by Illulb's son, Cuilén.^[132] The latter's death at the hands of Britons in 971 is recorded by several sources. Some of these sources locate his death to locations that could refer to either Abington in South Lanarkshire,^[133] Lothian,^[134] or the Lennox.^[135] There is reason to suspect that Cuilén's killer was a son of Dyfnwal himself.^[136] The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba reports that the killer was a certain Rhydderch ap Dyfnwal (fl. 971), a man who slew Cuilén for the sake of his own daughter.^[137] The thirteenth-century Verse Chronicle,^[138] the twelfth- to thirteenth-century Chronicle of Melrose,^[139] and the fourteenth-century Chronica gentis Scotorum likewise identify Cuilén's killer as Rhydderch, the father of an abducted daughter raped by the Scottish king.^[140]

Although there is no specific evidence that Rhydderch was himself a king,^[141] the fact that Cuilén was involved with his daughter, coupled with the fact that his warband was evidently strong enough to overcome that of Cuilén, suggests that Rhydderch must have been a man of eminent standing.^[142] According to the Prophecy of Berchán, Cuilén met his end whilst "seeking a foreign land", which could indicate that he was attempting to lift taxes from the Cumbrians.^[143] Another way in which Cuilén may have met his end concerns the record of his father's seizure of Edinburgh. The fact that this conquest would have likely included at least part of Lothian,^[144] coupled with the evidence locating Cuilén's demise to the same area, could indicate that Cuilén was slain in the midst of exercising overlordship of this contested territory. If so, the records that link Rhydderch with the regicide could reveal that this wronged father exploited Cuilén's vulnerable position in the region, and that Rhydderch seized the chance to avenge his daughter.^[145]

Cuilén seems to have been succeeded by his kinsman Cináed mac Maíl Choluim.^[147] One of the latter's first acts as King of Alba was evidently an invasion of the kingdom of the Cumbrians.^[148] This campaign could well have been a retaliatory response to Cuilén's killing,^[149] carried out in the context of crushing a British affront to Scottish authority.^[150] In any event, Cináed's invasion ended in defeat,^[151] a fact which coupled with Cuilén's killing reveals that the Cumbrian realm was indeed a power to be reckoned with.^[152] Whilst it is conceivable that Rhydderch could have succeeded Dyfnwal by the time of Cuilén's fall,^[153] another possibility is that Dyfnwal was still the king, and that Cináed's strike into Cumbrian territory was the last conflict of Dyfnwal's reign.^[154] In fact, it could have been at about this point when Máel Coluim took up the kingship.^[155] According to the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, Cináed constructed some sort of fortification on the River Forth, perhaps the strategically located Fords of Frew near Stirling.^[156] One possibility is that this engineering project was undertaken in the context of limiting Cumbrian incursions.^[157]

Amongst an assembly of kings

There is evidence to suggest that Dyfnwal was amongst the assembled kings who are recorded to have met with Edgar at Chester in 973.^[158] According to the "D", "E", and "F" versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, after having been consecrated king that year, this English monarch assembled a massive naval force and met with six kings at Chester.^[159] By the tenth century, the number of kings who met with him was alleged to have been eight, as evidenced by the tenth-century Life of St Swithun.^[160] By the twelfth century, the eight kings began to be named and were alleged to have rowed Edgar down the River Dee, as evidenced by sources such as the twelfth-century texts Chronicon ex chronicis,^[161] Gesta regum Anglorum,^[162] and De primo Saxonum adventu,^[163] as well as the thirteenth-century Chronica majora,^[164] and both the Wendover^[165] and Paris versions of Flores historiarum.^[166] One of the names in all these sources—specifically identified as a Welsh king by Gesta regum Anglorum, Chronica majora, and both versions of Flores historiarum—appears to refer to Dyfnwal.^[167] Another named figure, styled King of the Cumbrians, seems to be identical to his son, Máel Coluim.^[168]{{#tag:ref|Both versions of Flores historiarum and Chronica majora specifically associate Dyfnwal with the Kingdom of Dyfed.^[169] Another source linking Dyfnwal and Máel Coluim to the assembly is the Chronicle of Melrose.^[170] If it was not Dyfnwal who attended the assembly, another possibility is that the like-named attendee was Domnall ua Néill, King of Tara.^[171]|group=note}}

Whilst the symbolic tale of the men rowing Edgar down the river may be an unhistorical embellishment, most of the names accorded to the eight kings can be associated with contemporary rulers, suggesting that some of these men may have taken part in a concord with him.^[174]{{#tag:ref|Two of the kings are accorded names are of uncertain meaning.^[175]|group=note}} Although the latter accounts allege that the kings submitted to Edgar, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle merely states that they came to an agreement of cooperation with him, and thus became his {{lang|ang|efen-wyrhtan}} ("co-workers", "even-workers", "fellow-workers").^[176] One possibility is that the assembly somehow relates to Edmund's attested incursion into Cumbria in 945. According to the same source, when Edmund {{lang|ang|let}} Cumbria to Máel Coluim mac Domnaill, he had done so on the condition that the latter would be his {{lang|ang|mid-wyrhta}} ("co-worker", "even-worker", "fellow-worker", "together-wright").^[177] Less reliable non-contemporary sources such as De primo Saxonum adventu,^[178] both the Wendover^[179] and Paris versions of Flores historiarum,^[180] and Chronica majora allege that Edgar granted Lothian to Cináed in 975.^[181] If this supposed grant formed a part of the episode at Chester, it along with the concord of 945 could indicate that the assembly of 975 was not a submission as such, but more of a conference concerning mutual cooperation along the English borderlands.^[182] The location of the assembly of 973 at Chester would have been a logical neutral site for all parties.^[183]{{#tag:ref|At about the same time as the assembly, De primo Saxonum adventu also notes that Edgar partitioned the Northumbrian ealdormanry into northern and southern divisions, split between the Tees and {{lang|la|Myreforth}}. If the latter location refers to the mud flats between the River Esk and the Solway Firth,^[184] it would reveal that what is today Cumberland had fallen outwith Cumbrian royal authority and into the hands of the English.^[185]|group=note}}

One of the other named kings was Cináed.^[187] Considering the fact that the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle numbers the kings at six, if Cináed was indeed present, it is unlikely that his rival, Cuilén's brother Amlaíb mac Illuilb, was also in attendance.^[188] Although the chronology concerning the reigns of Cináed and Amlaíb mac Illuilb is uncertain^[189]—with Amlaíb mac Illuilb perhaps reigning from 971/976–977^[190] and Cináed from 971/977–995^[188]—the part played by the King of Alba at the assembly could well have concerned the frontier of his realm.^[191] One of the other named kings seems to have been Maccus mac Arailt (fl. 971–974),^[192] whilst another could have been this man's brother, Gofraid.^[193] These two Islesmen may have been regarded a threats by the Scots^[191] and Cumbrians.^[188] Maccus and Gofraid are recorded to have devastated Anglesey at the beginning of the decade,^[194] which could indicate that Edgar's assembly was undertaken as a means to counter the menace posed by these energetic insular Scandinavians.^[195] In fact, there is evidence to suggest that, as a consequence of the assembly at Chester, the brothers may have turned their attention from the British mainland westwards towards Ireland.^[196]

Another aspect of the assembly may have concerned the remarkable rising power of Amlaíb Cúarán in Ireland.^[198] Edgar may have wished to not only reign in men such as Maccus and Gofraid, but prevent them—and the Scots and Cumbrians—from affiliating themselves with Amlaíb Cúarán, and recognising the latter's authority in the Irish Sea region.^[199] Another factor concerning Edgar, and his Scottish and Cumbrian counterparts, may have been the stability of the northern English frontier. For example, a certain Thored Gunnerson is recorded to have ravaged Westmorland in 966, an action that may have been undertaken by the English in the context of a response to Cumbrian southward expansion.^[200]{{#tag:ref|According to the Life of St Cathróe, when Dyfnwal escorted Cathróe to the frontier of his realm, the latter was then escorted by a certain Gunderic to the domain of Erich in York.^[201] It is possible that Gunderic is identical to Thored's father, and identical to the Gunner who appears is charter evidence from 931–963.^[202]|group=note}} Although the Scottish invasion of Cumbrian and English territory unleashed after Cináed's inauguration could have been intended to tackle Cumbrian opposition,^[149] another possibility is that the campaign may have been executed as a way to counter any occupation of Cumbrian territories by Thored.^[203]

Death and descendants

Both Dyfnwal^[206] and his English counterpart died in 975.^[207] According to various Irish annals, which style Dyfnwal King of the Britons, he met his end whilst undertaking a pilgrimage.^[208] These sources are corroborated by Welsh texts such as the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Brenhinedd y Saesson,^[209] and Brut y Tywysogyon, with the latter stating that Dyfnwal died in Rome having received the tonsure.^[210] Such religious retirement late in the life of a ruler was not uncommon amongst contemporaries. For example, Custantín evidently became a monk upon his own abdication, whilst Amlaíb Cúarán retired to the holy island of Iona in pilgrimage.^[211] One possibility is that Dyfnwal decided to undertake his religious journey—or was perhaps forced to undertake it—as a result of the violent actions of Rhydderch.^[212]

It is conceivable that Dyfnwal was still reigning in 973,^[214] and that it was Edgar's death two years later that precipitated the transfer of the kingship to Dyfnwal's son Máel Coluim, and contributed to Dyfnwal's pilgrimage to Rome. In fact, the upheaval caused by the absence of the English and Cumbrian kings could well have contributed to Cináed's final elimination of Amlaíb mac Illuilb in 997.^[188] Another possibility is that Máel Coluim's part in the 973 assembly may have partly concerned his father's impending pilgrimage, and that he sought surety for Dyfnwal's safe passage through Edgar's realm.^[191] The fact that Máel Coluim is identified as one of the assembled kings could indicate that Dyfnwal had relinquished control to him at some point before the convention.^[215] Evidence that he had indeed assumed the kingship may exist in the record of a certain Malcolm dux who witnessed an English royal charter in 970.^[216] Although the authenticity of this document is questionable, the attested Malcolm could well be identical to Máel Coluim himself.^[217]{{#tag:ref|This charter is composed of Latin and Old English text. The document may be evidence of Scottish and Cumbrian submission to the English. For example, one place the text reads in Latin: "I, Edgar, ruler of the beloved island of Albion, subjected to us of the rule of the Scots and Cumbrians and the Britons and of all regions round about ...". The corresponding Old English text reads: "I, Edgar, exalted as king over the English people by His [God's] grace, and He has now subjected to my authority the Scots and Cumbrians and also the Britons and all that this island has inside ...".^[218]|group=note}} If Máel Coluim was indeed king in 973, Dyfnwal's role at the assembly may have been that of an 'elder statesman' of sorts—possibly serving as an adviser or mentor—especially considering his decades of experience in international affairs.^[219] The fact that he left his realm for Rome could be evidence that he did not regard his realm or dynasty to be threatened during his absence.^[220]

Surviving sources fail to note the Cumbrian kingdom between the obituaries of Dyfnwal in 975 and his son, Máel Coluim, in 997.^[222] There is reason to suspect that Dyfnwal had another son, Owain, who reigned after Máel Coluim.^[223] For instance, according to the "B" version of Annales Cambriæ, a certain Owain—identified as the son of a man named Dyfnwal—was slain in 1015.^[224] This obituary is corroborated by Brut y Tywysogyon,^[225] and Brenhinedd y Saesson.^[226] Although it may be possible that the record of this man's death refers to Owain Foel, King of Strathclyde (fl. 1018),^[227] there is no reason to disregard the obituaries as erroneous. If the like-named men are indeed different people, they could well have been closely related. Whilst the former may have been a son of Dyfnwal himself, the latter could well have been a son of Dyfnwal's son, Máel Coluim.^[228] The Owain who died in 1015, therefore, would seem to have assumed the Cumbrian kingship after Máel Coluim's death in 997, and would appear to have reigned into the early eleventh century before Owain Foel's assumption of the throne.^[223]

Dyfnwal may be the man immortalised in the name of a mountain pass in the Lake District known as Dunmail Raise (meaning "Dyfnwal's Cairn").^[229] According to popular legend, a local king named Dunmail was slain by Saxons on the pass and buried beneath a cairn. Forms of this tradition may date to about the sixteenth century,^[230] as the place name is first marked on a map dating to 1576.^[231] By the end of the seventeenth century, it was claimed that the place name marked the site of "a great heap of Stones call'd Dunmail-Raise-Stones, suppos'd to have been cast up by Dunmail K. of Cumberland for the Bounds of his Kingdom".^[232] Forms of the tale began to appear in print in the following century. In time, the ever-evolving legend became associated with the events of 945.^[233] The cairn itself lies between the dual carriageways of the A591 road.^[234] It seems to have marked an old boundary between Westmorland and Cumberland, and might have also marked the southern territorial extent of the Cumbrian kingdom.^[235] Nevertheless, the site's alleged importance in the early mediaeval period cannot be proven.^[236] Other place names that may be named after Dyfnwal include Cardonald ({{gbmapping|NS5364}}),^[237] and Dundonald/Dundonald Castle ({{gbmapping|NS3636034517}}).^[238]

Notes

Citations

References

Primary sources

• {{cite book |year=1908 |editor1-last=Anderson |editor1-first=AO |editor1-link=Alan Orr Anderson |title=Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers, A.D. 500 to 1286 |url=https://archive.org/details/scottishannalsfr00andeuoft |publisher=David Nutt |location=London |ol=7115802M |via=Internet Archive |ref=A5 }}
• {{cite book |year=1922 |editor1-last=Anderson |editor1-first=AO |title=Early Sources of Scottish History, A.D. 500 to 1286 |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028144313 |volume=Vol. 1 |publisher=Oliver and Boyd |location=London |ol=14712679M |via=Internet Archive |ref=A1 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=AO |year=1930 |title=The Prophecy of Berchan |journal=Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie |volume=18 |pages=1–56 |eissn=1865-889X |issn=0084-5302 |doi=10.1515/zcph.1930.18.1.1 |via=De Gruyter Online |subscription=yes |ref=A9 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=MO |author-link=Marjorie Ogilvie Anderson |year=1960 |title=Lothian and the Early Scottish Kings |journal=Scottish Historical Review |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=98–112 |issn=0036-9241 |eissn=1750-0222 |jstor=25526601 |via=JSTOR |subscription=yes |ref=A6 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100005B/index.html |title=Annals of the Four Masters |year=2013a |website=Corpus of Electronic Texts |edition=3 December 2013 |publisher=University College Cork |accessdate=13 July 2016 |ref=A7 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100005B/index.html |title=Annals of the Four Masters |year=2013b |website=Corpus of Electronic Texts |edition=16 December 2013 |publisher=University College Cork |accessdate=13 July 2016 |ref=A8 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100002/index.html |title=Annals of Tigernach |year=2005 |website=Corpus of Electronic Texts |edition=13 April 2005 |publisher=University College Cork |accessdate=19 June 2016 |ref=A2 }}
• {{cite book |year=1879 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=T |editor-link=Tom Arnold (literary scholar) |title=Henrici Archidiaconi Huntendunensis Historia Anglorum. The History of the English |url=https://archive.org/details/henriciarchidia00unkngoog |series=Rerum Britannicarum Medii Ævi Scriptores |publisher=Longman & Co |location=London |ol=16622993M |via=Internet Archive |ref=A4 }}
• {{cite book |year=1882 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=T |title=Symeonis Monachi Opera Omnia |series=Rerum Britannicarum Medii Ævi Scriptores |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0YWAAAAYAAJ |volume=Vol. 1 |publisher=Longmans & Co |location=London |via=Google Books |ref=A3 }}
• {{cite book |year=1885 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=T |title=Symeonis Monachi Opera Omnia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UYWAAAAYAAJ |series=Rerum Britannicarum Medii Ævi Scriptores |volume=Vol. 2 |publisher=Longmans & Co |location=London |via=Google Books |ref=AA2 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Baker |editor-first=PS |year=2000 |title=The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition |volume=Vol. 8, MS F |publisher=D. S. Brewer |location=Cambridge |isbn=0 85991 490 9 |via=Google Books |ref=XB103 }}
• {{cite book |last=Birch |first=WDG |year=1887 |title=Cartularium Saxonicum |volume=Vol. 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zHSGgIeG8EC |publisher=Charles J. Clark |location=London |via=Google Books |ref=B5 }}
• {{cite book |last=Birch |first=WDG |year=1893 |title=Cartularium Saxonicum |volume=Vol. 3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNrO5CDfVJ0C |publisher=Charles J. Clark |location=London |via=Google Books |ref=BXX4 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |url=http://image.ox.ac.uk/show?collection=bodleian&manuscript=msrawlb488 |title=Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 488 |website=Early Manuscripts at Oxford University |publisher=Oxford Digital Library |accessdate=21 June 2016 |ref=B15 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |url=http://image.ox.ac.uk/show?collection=bodleian&manuscript=msrawlb489 |title=Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 489 |website=Early Manuscripts at Oxford University |publisher=Oxford Digital Library |accessdate=21 June 2016 |ref=B14 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |url=http://image.ox.ac.uk/show?collection=bodleian&manuscript=msrawlb502 |title=Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 502 |website=Early Manuscripts at Oxford University |publisher=Oxford Digital Library |accessdate=29 July 2016 |ref=B2 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Colganvm |editor-first=I |editor-link=John Colgan |year=1645 |title=Acta Sanctorvm Veteris et Maioris Scotiæ, sev Hiberniæ Sanctorvm Insvlae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obQhvfLS2joC |publisher=Everardvm de VVitte |location=Lyon |via=Google Books |ref=C4 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |url=http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Cotton_MS_Domitian_A_VIII |title=Cotton MS Domitian A VIII |website=British Library |accessdate=8 February 2016 |ref=C13 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |url=http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Cotton_MS_Faustina_B_IX |title=Cotton MS Faustina B IX |website=British Library |accessdate=24 June 2016 |ref=C8 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |url=http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Cotton_MS_Tiberius_B_I |title=Cotton MS Tiberius B I |website=British Library |accessdate=15 February 2016 |ref=C6 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Coxe |editor-first=HE |editor-link=Henry Coxe |year=1841 |title=Rogeri de Wendover Chronica, sive Flores Historiarum |volume=Vol. 1 |url=https://archive.org/details/rogeridewendover01roge |publisher=English Historical Society |location=London |via=Internet Archive |ref=C5 }}
• {{cite book |year=1853 |editor-last=Forester |editor-first=T |title=The Chronicle of Henry of Huntingdon: Comprising the History of England, From the Invasion of Julius Cæsar to the Accession of Henry II. Also, the Acts of Stephen, King of England and Duke of Normandy |url=https://archive.org/details/chroniclecompris00henruoft |series=Bohn's Antiquarian Library |publisher=Henry G. Bohn |location=London |ol=24434761M |via=Internet Archive |ref=F2 }}
• {{cite book |year=1854 |editor-last=Forester |editor-first=T |title=The Chronicle of Florence of Worcester, with the Two Continuations: Comprising Annals of English History, From the Departure of the Romans to the Reign of Edward I |url=https://archive.org/details/chronicleofflore00flor |series=Bohn's Antiquarian Library |publisher=Henry G. Bohn |location=London |via=Internet Archive |ol=24871176M |ref=F1 }}
• {{cite book |year=1847 |editor-last=Giles |editor-first=JA |editor-link=John Allen Giles |title=William of Malmesbury's Chronicle of the Kings of England, From the Earliest Period to the Reign of King Stephen |url=https://archive.org/details/williammalmesbu00gilegoog |series=Bohn's Antiquarian Library |location=London |publisher=Henry G. Bohn |via=Internet Archive |ref=G4 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Giles |editor-first=JA |year=1849 |title=Roger of Wendover's Flowers of History |volume=Vol. 1 |url=https://archive.org/details/rogerofwendovers01rogemiss |series=Bohn's Antiquarian Library |publisher=Henry G. Bohn |location=London |via=Internet Archive |ref=G3 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Gough-Cooper |editor-first=HW |year=2015a |title=Annales Cambriae: The A Text From British Library, Harley MS 3859, ff. 190r–193r |edition=November 2015 |url=http://croniclau.bangor.ac.uk/documents/AC_A_first_edition.pdf |format=PDF |via=Welsh Chronicles Research Group |ref=G2 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Gough-Cooper |editor-first=HW |year=2015b |title=Annales Cambriae: The B Text From London, National Archives, MS E164/1, pp. 2–26 |edition=September 2015 |url=http://croniclau.bangor.ac.uk/documents/AC%20B%20first%20edition.pdf |format=PDF |via=Welsh Chronicles Research Group |ref=G1 }}
• {{cite book |year=1840 |editor-last=Hardy |editor-first=TD |editor-link=Thomas Duffus Hardy |title=Willelmi Malmesbiriensis Monachi Gesta Regum Anglorum Atque Historia Novella |url=https://archive.org/details/willelmimalmesbi01will |volume=Vol. 1 |publisher=English Historical Society |location=London |ol=24871887M |via=Internet Archive |ref=H7 }}
• {{cite book |last=Howlett |first=D |year=2000 |title=Caledonian Craftmanship: The Scottish Latin Tradition |publisher=Four Courts Press |location=Dublin |isbn=1 85182 455 3 |via=Google Books |ref=H8 }}
• {{cite book |last=Hudson |first=BT |author-link=Benjamin Hudson |year=1996 |title=Prophecy of Berchán: Irish and Scottish High-Kings of the Early Middle Ages |series=Contributions to the Study of World History (series vol. 54) |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, CT |isbn=0-313-29567-0 |issn=0885-9159 |via=Google Books |ref=H5 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Hudson |first=BT |year=1998 |title='The Scottish Chronicle' |journal=Scottish Historical Review |volume=77 |issue=2 |doi=10.3366/shr.1998.77.2.129 |issn=0036-9241 |eissn=1750-0222 |pages=129–161 |jstor=25530832 |via=JSTOR |subscription=yes |ref=H4 }}
• {{cite book |year=2004 |editor-last=Irvine |editor-first=S |title=The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition |volume=Vol. 7, MS E |publisher=D.S. Brewer |location=Cambridge |isbn=0 85991 494 1 |ref=IX1 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |url=http://image.ox.ac.uk/show?collection=jesus&manuscript=ms111 |title=Jesus College MS. 111 |website=Early Manuscripts at Oxford University |publisher=Oxford Digital Library |accessdate=20 October 2015 |ref=J5 }}
• {{cite book |year=1870 |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=O |editor1-link=Owen Jones (antiquary) |editor2-last=Williams |editor2-first=E |editor2-link=Iolo Morganwg |editor3-last=Pughe |editor3-first=WO |editor3-link=William Owen Pughe |title=The Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales |url=https://archive.org/details/myvyrianarchaio00jone |publisher=Thomas Gee |location=Denbigh |ol=6930827M |via=Internet Archive |ref=JA1 }}
• {{cite book |year=n.d. |title=Lat. 4126 |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b9065949v |via=Gallica |ref=L3 }}
• {{cite book |year=1872 |editor-last=Luard |editor-first=HR |editor-link=Henry Richards Luard |title=Matthæi Parisiensis, Monachi Sancti Albani, Chronica Majora |url=https://archive.org/details/matthiparisien01pari |volume=Vol. 1 |publisher=Longman & Co. |location=London |via=Internet Archive |ref=LA1 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Luard |editor-first=HR |year=2012 |origyear=1890 |title=Flores Historiarum |volume=Vol. 1 |series=Rerum Britannicarum Medii Ævi Scriptores |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-108-05334-1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139382960 |ref=L1 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Mac Eoin |first=G |author-link=Gearóid Mac Eoin |year=1961 |title=The Date and Authorship of Saltair na Rann |journal=Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie |volume=28 |pages=51–67 |doi=10.1515/zcph.1961.28.1.51 |eissn=1865-889X |issn=0084-5302 |subscription=yes |ref=M1002 }}
• {{cite book |last=Ogilby |first=J |year=1699 |title=The Traveller's Guide: or a Most Exact Description of the Roads of England |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=twFQAQAAIAAJ |publisher=T. Ilive |location=London |via=Google Books |ref=OZZZ1 }}
• {{cite book |year=2001 |editor-last=O'Keeffe |editor-first=KO |title=The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition |volume=Vol. 5, MS C |publisher=D.S. Brewer |location=Cambridge |isbn=0 85991 491 7 |ref=O1 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |url=http://www.rhyddiaithganoloesol.caerdydd.ac.uk/en/ms-home.php?ms=Jesus111 |title=Oxford Jesus College MS. 111 (The Red Book of Hergest) |website=Welsh Prose 1300–1425 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |ref=O5 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Pierquin |editor-first=H |year=1912 |title=Recueil Général de Chartes Anglo-Saxonnes: Les Saxons en Angleterre (604–1061) |url=https://archive.org/details/recueilgeneral00pier |publisher=Alphonse Picard & Fils |location=Paris |ol=6557679M |via=Internet Archive |ref=P3 }}
• {{cite book |year=1890 |editor1-last=Rhŷs |editor1-first=J |editor1-link=John Rhys |editor2-last=Evans |editor2-first=JG |editor2-link=John Gwenogvryn Evans |title=The Text of the Bruts From the Red Book of Hergest |url=https://archive.org/details/textofbrutsfromr00rhys |location=Oxford |ol=19845420M |via=Internet Archive |ref=R1 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |title=S 520 |url=http://www.esawyer.org.uk/charter/520.html |website=The Electronic Sawyer: Online Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon Charters |accessdate=27 March 2017 |ref=S13 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |title=S 544 |url=http://www.esawyer.org.uk/charter/544.html |website=The Electronic Sawyer: Online Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon Charters |accessdate=27 March 2017 |ref=S14 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |title=S 677 |url=http://www.esawyer.org.uk/charter/677.html |website=The Electronic Sawyer: Online Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon Charters |accessdate=29 March 2017 |ref=S15 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |title=S 779 |url=http://www.esawyer.org.uk/charter/779.html |website=The Electronic Sawyer: Online Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon Charters |accessdate=10 July 2016 |ref=S7 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G202001/index.html |title=Saltair na Rann |year=2011 |website=Corpus of Electronic Texts |edition=22 January 2011 |publisher=University College Cork |accessdate=29 July 2016 |ref=S5 }}
• {{cite web |year=n.d. |title=Saltair na Rann |url=https://www.dias.ie/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/canto011-020.pdf |format=PDF |website=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies (School of Celtic Studies) |accessdate=29 July 2016 |ref=S6 }}
• {{cite book |year=1881 |editor-last=Skeat |editor-first=W |editor-link=Walter William Skeat |title=Ælfric's Lives of Saints |url=https://archive.org/details/aelfricslivesof01aelf |volume=Vol. 1 |series=Third series |publisher=Early English Text Society |location=London |via=Internet Archive |ref=SA1 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Skene |editor-first=WF |editor-link=William Forbes Skene |year=1867 |title=Chronicles of the Picts, Chronicles of the Scots, and Other Early Memorials of Scottish History |url=https://archive.org/details/chroniclesofpict00sken |publisher=H.M. General Register House |location=Edinburgh |ol=23286818M |via=Internet Archive |ref=S3 }}
• {{cite book |year=1871 |editor-last=Skene |editor-first=WF |title=Johannis de Fordun Chronica Gentis Scotorum |url=https://archive.org/details/johannisdefordun01ford |publisher=Edmonston and Douglas |location=Edinburgh |ol=24871486M |via=Internet Archive |ref=S10 }}
• {{cite book |year=1872 |editor-last=Skene |editor-first=WF |title=John of Fordun's Chronicle of the Scottish Nation |url=https://archive.org/details/johannisdefordun02ford |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edmonston and Douglas |ol=24871442M |via=Internet Archive |ref=S2 }}
• {{cite book |year=1835 |editor-last=Stevenson |editor-first=J |editor-link=Joseph Stevenson |title=Chronica de Mailros |url=https://archive.org/details/chronicdemailros00melruoft |publisher=The Bannatyne Club |location=Edinburgh |ol=13999983M |via=Internet Archive |ref=S4 }}
• {{cite book |year=1853 |editor-last=Stevenson |editor-first=J |title=The Church Historians of England |url=https://archive.org/details/churchhistorians21stev |volume=Vol. 2, pt. 1 |publisher=Seeleys |location=London |via=Internet Archive |ref=SA2 }}
• {{cite book |year=1855 |editor-last=Stevenson |editor-first=J |title=The Church Historians of England |url=https://archive.org/details/churchhistorpt203unknuoft |volume=Vol. 3, pt. 2 |publisher=Seeleys |location=London |ol=7055940M |via=Internet Archive |ref=SA4 }}
• {{cite book |year=1856 |editor-last=Stevenson |editor-first=J |title=The Church Historians of England |url=https://archive.org/details/churchhistorians41stev |volume=Vol. 4, pt. 1 |publisher=Seeleys |location=London |via=Internet Archive |ref=S1 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100002A/index.html |title=The Annals of Tigernach |year=2016 |website=Corpus of Electronic Texts |edition=8 February 2016 |publisher=University College Cork |accessdate=21 May 2017 |ref=T3 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100001A/index.html |title=The Annals of Ulster |year=2008 |website=Corpus of Electronic Texts |edition=29 August 2008 |publisher=University College Cork |accessdate=14 June 2016 |ref=T1 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100001A/index.html |title=The Annals of Ulster |year=2017 |website=Corpus of Electronic Texts |edition=6 January 2017 |publisher=University College Cork |accessdate=21 May 2017 |ref=T2 }}
• {{cite book |year=1848 |editor-last=Thorpe |editor-first=B |title=Florentii Wigorniensis Monachi Chronicon ex Chronicis |volume=Vol. 1 |url=https://archive.org/details/florentiiwigorni01flor |publisher=English Historical Society |location=London |via=Internet Archive |ol=24871544M |ref=T7 }}
• {{cite book |year=1861 |editor-last=Thorpe |editor-first=B |title=The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonchroni01thor |series=Rerum Britannicarum Medii Ævi Scriptores |volume=Vol. 1 |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts |location=London |via=Internet Archive |ref=T6 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Thorpe |editor-first=B |year=1865 |title=Diplomatarium Anglicum Ævi Saxonici: A Collection of English Charters |url=https://archive.org/details/diplomatariuman02thorgoog |publisher=Macmillan & Co. |location=London |ol=21774758M |via=Internet Archive |ref=T1001 }}
• {{cite book |year=1996 |origyear=1955 |editor-last=Whitelock |editor-first=D |editor-link=Dorothy Whitelock |title=English Historical Documents, c. 500–1042 |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-203-43950-3 |via=Google Books |ref=W9 }}
• {{cite book |year=1860 |editor-last=Williams Ab Ithel |editor-first=J |editor-link=John Williams (Ab Ithel) |title=Brut y Tywysigion; or, The Chronicle of the Princes |url=https://archive.org/details/brutytywysogiono00cara |series=Rerum Britannicarum Medii Ævi Scriptores |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts |location=London |ol=24776516M |via=Internet Archive |ref=W7 }}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Yonge |editor-first=CD |editor-link= Charles Duke Yonge |year=1853 |title=The Flowers of History |volume=Vol. 1 |url=https://archive.org/details/flowersofhistory01pariuoft |ol=7154619M |location=London |publisher=Henry G. Bohn |via=Internet Archive |ref=Y1 }}

Secondary sources

• {{cite book |last=Aird |first=WM |year=2009 |chapter=Northumbria |editor-last=Stafford |editor-first=P |editor-link=Pauline Stafford |title=A Companion to the Early Middle Ages: Britain and Ireland, c.500–c.1100 |series=Blackwell Companions to British History |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Chichester |pages=303–321 |isbn=978-1-405-10628-3 |ref=AX1 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Alcock |first=L |author-link=Leslie Alcock |year=1975–1976 |title=A Multi-Disciplinary Chronology for Alt Clut, Castle Rock, Dumbarton |url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_107/107_103_113.pdf |format=PDF |volume=107 |journal=Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland |pages=103–113 |issn=0081-1564 |eissn=2056-743X |doi=10.5284/1000184 |doi-access=free |via=Archaeology Data Service |ref=A10 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Breeze |first=A |author-link=Andrew Breeze |year=1992 |title=The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 1072 and the Fords of Frew, Scotland |journal=Notes and Queries |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=269–270 |doi=10.1093/nq/39.3.269 |eissn=1471-6941 |issn=0029-3970 |ref=B6 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Breeze |first=A |year=2006 |title=Britons in the Barony of Gilsland, Cumbria |journal=Northern History |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=327–332 |doi=10.1179/174587006X116194 |issn=0078-172X |eissn=1745-8706 |ref=BXX1 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Breeze |first=A |year=2007 |title=Edgar at Chester in 973: A Breton Link? |journal=Northern History |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=153–157 |doi=10.1179/174587007X165405 |issn=0078-172X |eissn=1745-8706 |ref=BXX5 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6870 |title=Culen (d. 971) |last=Broun |first=D |author-link=Dauvit Broun |year=2004a |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/6870 |accessdate=13 June 2016 |subscription=yes |ref=B4 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/14379 |title=Indulf (bap. 927?, d. 962) |last=Broun |first=D |year=2004b |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/14379 |accessdate=13 June 2016 |subscription=yes |ref=BXX2 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/15399 |title=Kenneth II (d. 995) |last=Broun |first=D |year=2004c |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/15399 |accessdate=3 December 2015 |subscription=yes |ref=B7 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Broun |first=D |year=2004d |title=The Welsh Identity of the Kingdom of Strathclyde c.900–c.1200 |journal=The Innes Review |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=111–180 |doi=10.3366/inr.2004.55.2.111 |issn=0020-157X |eissn=1745-5219 |ref=B11 }}
• {{cite book |last=Broun |first=D |year=2005 |chapter=Contemporary Perspectives on Alexander II's Succession: The Evidence of King-lists |editor-last=Oram |editor-first=RD |editor-link=Richard Oram |title=The Reign of Alexander II, 1214–49 |series=The Northern World: North Europe and the Baltic c. 400–1700 AD. Peoples, Economics and Cultures (series vol. 16) |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |pages=79–98 |isbn=90 04 14206 1 |issn=1569-1462 |ref=B1 }}
• {{cite book |last=Broun |first=D |year=2007 |title=Scottish Independence and the Idea of Britain: From the Picts to Alexander III |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978 0 7486 2360 0 |ref=B6X }}
• {{cite book |last=Broun |first=D |chapter=Cuilén |year=2015a |origyear=1997 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199677832.001.0001/acref-9780199677832-e-1205 |editor1-last=Crowcroft |editor1-first=R |editor2-last=Cannon |editor2-first=J |editor2-link=John Cannon (historian) |title=The Oxford Companion to British History |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-19-967783-2 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199677832.001.0001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |via=Oxford Reference |subscription=yes |ref=B1XXX }}
• {{cite book |last=Broun |first=D |chapter=Indulf |year=2015b |origyear=1997 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199677832.001.0001/acref-9780199677832-e-2262 |editor1-last=Crowcroft |editor1-first=R |editor2-last=Cannon |editor2-first=J |title=The Oxford Companion to British History |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-19-967783-2 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199677832.001.0001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |via=Oxford Reference |subscription=yes |ref=BXX3 }}
• {{cite book |last=Bruford |first=A |year=2000 |chapter=What Happened to the Caledonians |editor1-last=Cowan |editor1-first=EJ |editor1-link=Edward J. Cowan |editor2-last=McDonald |editor2-first=RA |title=Alba: Celtic Scotland in the Middle Ages |publisher=Tuckwell Press |location=East Linton |pages=43–68 |isbn=1-86232-151-5 |ref=B3 }}
• {{cite book |last=Busse |first=PE |year=2006a |chapter=Cinaed mac Mael Choluim |editor-last=Koch |editor-first=JT |editor-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=Vol. 2 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |page=439 |isbn=1-85109-445-8 |ref=B13 }}
• {{cite book |last=Busse |first=PE |year=2006b |chapter=Cuilén Ring mac Illuilb |editor-last=Koch |editor-first=JT |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=Vol. 2 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |page=509 |isbn=1-85109-445-8 |ref=BZZ1 }}
• {{cite book |last=Busse |first=PE |year=2006c |chapter=Dyfnwal ab Owain/Domnall mac Eogain |editor-last=Koch |editor-first=JT |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=Vol. 2 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |page=639 |isbn=1-85109-445-8 |ref=B12 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.pase.ac.uk/jsp/persons/CreatePersonFrames.jsp?personKey=10695 |title=Cadfan 1 (Female) |website=Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England |year=n.d. |accessdate=11 September 2017 |ref=C16 }}
• {{cite book |last=Cannon |first=J |chapter=Cumberland |year=2015 |origyear=1997 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199677832.001.0001/acref-9780199677832-e-1208 |editor1-last=Crowcroft |editor1-first=R |editor2-last=Cannon |editor2-first=J |title=The Oxford Companion to British History |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-19-967783-2 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199677832.001.0001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |via=Oxford Reference |subscription=yes |ref=C1 }}
• {{cite book |year=1909 |title=Cassell's History of England: From the Roman Invasion to the Wars of the Roses |url=https://archive.org/details/cassellshistoryo01londuoft |volume=Vol. 1 |publisher=Cassell and Company |location=London |ol=7042010M |via=Internet Archive |ref=C2 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Charles-Edwards |first=TM |author-link=Thomas Charles-Edwards |year=2013a |title=Reflections on Early-Medieval Wales |journal=Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion |volume=19 |issn=0959-3632 |pages=7–23 |ref=C17 }}
• {{cite book |last=Charles-Edwards |first=TM |year=2013b |title=Wales and the Britons, 350–1064 |series=The History of Wales (series vol. 1) |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-821731-2 |ref=C10 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Clancy |first=TO |author-link=Thomas Owen Clancy |year=2002 |title='Celtic' or 'Catholic'? Writing the History of Scottish Christianity, AD 664–1093 |url=https://archive.org/details/rschsv032p1clancy |journal=Records of the Scottish Church History Society |volume=32 |pages=5–39 |via=Internet Archive |ref=C16 }}
• {{cite book |last=Clancy |first=TO |year=2006 |chapter=Ystrad Clud |editor-last=Koch |editor-first=JT |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=Vol. 5 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |pages=1818–1821 |isbn=1-85109-445-8 |ref=C11 }}
• {{cite book |last=Clarkson |first=T |year=2010 |title=The Men of the North: The Britons and Southern Scotland |publisher=John Donald |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-1-907909-02-3 |type=EPUB |ref=C3 }}
• {{cite book |last=Clarkson |first=T |year=2012a |orig-year=2011 |title=The Makers of Scotland: Picts, Romans, Gaels and Vikings |publisher=Birlinn Limited |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-1-907909-01-6 |type=EPUB |ref=C7 }}
• {{cite book |last=Clarkson |first=T |year=2012b |origyear=2008 |title=The Picts: A History |publisher=Birlinn Limited |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-1-907909-03-0 |type=EPUB |ref=C15 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Clarkson |first=T |year=2013 |title=The Last King of Strathclyde |journal=History Scotland |volume=13 |issue=6 |issn=1475-5270 |pages=24–27 |ref=C9 }}
• {{cite book |last=Clarkson |first=T |year=2014 |title=Strathclyde and the Anglo-Saxons in the Viking Age |publisher=John Donald |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-1-907909-25-2 |type=EPUB |ref=C14 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Collingwood |first=WG |author-link=W. G. Collingwood |year=1923 |title=The Giant's Grave, Penrith |journal=Transactions of the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archæological Society |url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-2055-1/dissemination/pdf/Article_Level_Pdf/tcwaas/002/1923/vol23/tcwaas_002_1923_vol23_0016.pdf |format=PDF |volume=23 |pages=115–128 |doi=10.5284/1032950 |doi-access=free |via=Archaeology Data Service |ref=CZZZ1 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/49265 |title=Erik Bloodaxe (d. 954) |last=Costambeys |first=M |year=2004 |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/49265 |accessdate=13 July 2016 |subscription=yes |ref=C12 }}
• {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=MR |year=2001 |chapter=The (Non)Submission of the Northern Kings in 920 |chapter-url=https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/23321 |hdl=1842/23321 |hdl-access=free |editor1-last=Higham |editor1-first=NJ |editor2-last=Hill |editor2-first=DH |title=Edward the Elder, 899–924 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |pages=200–211 |isbn=0-415-21496-3 |via=Edinburgh Research Archive |ref=D10 }}
• {{cite thesis |last=Davidson |first=MR |year=2002 |title=Submission and Imperium in the Early Medieval Insular World |url=https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/23321 |hdl=1842/23321 |hdl-access=free |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Edinburgh |via=Edinburgh Research Archive |ref=D11 }}
• {{cite book |last=Davies |first=JR |year=2009 |chapter=Bishop Kentigern Among the Britons |editor1-last=Boardman |editor1-first=S |editor1-link=Steve Boardman (historian) |editor2-last=Davies |editor2-first=JR |editor3-last=Williamson |editor3-first=E |title=Saints' Cults in the Celtic World |series=Studies in Celtic History (series vol. 25) |isbn=978-1-84383-432-8 |issn=0261-9865 |publisher=The Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |pages=66–90 |ref=D4 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Downham |first=C |year=2003 |title=The Chronology of the Last Scandinavian Kings of York, AD 937–954 |journal=Northern History |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=27–51 |doi=10.1179/007817203792207979 |issn=0078-172X |eissn=1745-8706 |ref=D3 }}
• {{cite book |last=Downham |first=C |year=2007 |title=Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland: The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014 |publisher=Dunedin Academic Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-1-903765-89-0 |ref=DZZ1 }}
• {{cite book |last=Downham |first=C |year=2013 |chapter=Eric Bloodaxe – Axed? The Mystery of the Last Scandinavian King of York |title=No Horns on Their Helmets? Essays on the Insular Viking-Age |series=Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Scandinavian Studies (series vol. 1) |publisher=Centre for Anglo-Saxon Studies and The Centre for Celtic Studies, University of Aberdeen |location=Aberdeen |pages=181–208 |issn=2051-6509 |isbn=978-0-9557720-1-6 |ref=D1 }}
• {{cite book |last=Driscoll |first=S |year=2006 |chapter=Govan |editor-last=Koch |editor-first=JT |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=Vol. 3 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |pages=839–841 |isbn=1-85109-445-8 |ref=D12 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Driscoll |first=ST |year=1998 |title=Church Archaeology in Glasgow and the Kingdom of Strathclyde |journal=The Innes Review |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=95–114 |doi=10.3366/inr.1998.49.2.95 |issn=0020-157X |eissn=1745-5219 |ref=D9 }}
• {{cite book |last=Driscoll |first=ST |chapter=Dumbarton |year=2001a |editor-last=Lynch |editor-first=M |editor-link=Michael Lynch (historian) |title=The Oxford Companion to Scottish History |series=Oxford Companions |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |page=180 |isbn=0-19-211696-7 |ref=D5 }}
• {{cite book |last=Driscoll |first=ST |chapter=Govan |year=2001b |editor-last=Lynch |editor-first=M |title=The Oxford Companion to Scottish History |series=Oxford Companions |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |pages=274–275 |isbn=0-19-211696-7 |ref=D8 }}
• {{cite book |last=Driscoll |first=ST |year=2003 |chapter=Govan: An Early Medieval Royal Centre on the Clyde |chapter-url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/3122/ |editor1-last=Breeze |editor1-first=DJ |editor1-link=David Breeze |editor2-last=Clancy |editor2-first=TO |editor3-last=Welander |editor3-first=R |title=The Stone of Destiny: Artefact and Icon |series=Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Monograph Series (series vol. 22) |publisher=Society of Antiquaries of Scotland |isbn=0903903229 |pages=77–83 |via=Publications |ref=D7 }}
• {{cite book |last=Driscoll |first=ST |year=2015 |chapter=In search of the Northern Britons in the Early Historic Era (AD 400–1100) |chapter-url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/97112/ |title=Essays on the Local History and Archaeology of West Central Scotland |series=Resource Assessment of Local History and Archaeology in West Central Scotland |publisher=Glasgow Museums |location=Glasgow |pages=1–15 |via=Enlighten: Publications |ref=D6 }}
• {{cite book |last=Dumville |first=DN |author-link=David Dumville |year=2018 |chapter=Origins of the Kingdom of the English |editor1-last=Naismith |editor1-first=R |editor2-last=Woodman |editor2-first=DA |title=Writing, Kingship and Power in Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-107-16097-2 |doi=10.1017/9781316676066.005 |pages=71–121 |ref=D13 }}
• {{cite book |last=Duncan |first=AAM |author-link=Archie Duncan (historian) |year=2002 |title=The Kingship of the Scots, 842–1292: Succession and Independence |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=0 7486 1626 8 |via=Google Books |ref=D2 }}
• {{cite book |last=Edmonds |first=F |year=2009 |chapter=Personal Names and the Cult of Patrick in Eleventh-Century Strathclyde and Northumbria |editor1-last=Boardman |editor1-first=S |editor2-last=Davies |editor2-first=JR |editor3-last=Williamson |editor3-first=E |title=Saints' Cults in the Celtic World |series=Studies in Celtic History (series vol. 25) |isbn=978-1-84383-432-8 |issn=0261-9865 |publisher=The Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |pages=42–65 |ref=E4 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Edmonds |first=F |year=2014 |title=The Emergence and Transformation of Medieval Cumbria |journal=Scottish Historical Review |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=195–216 |issn=0036-9241 |eissn=1750-0222 |doi=10.3366/shr.2014.0216 |via=Academic Search Complete |subscription=yes |ref=E1 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Edmonds |first=F |year=2015 |title=The Expansion of the Kingdom of Strathclyde |journal=Early Medieval Europe |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=43–66 |doi=10.1111/emed.12087 |eissn=1468-0254 |via=Wiley Online Library |ref=E2 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Evans |first=NJ |year=2015 |title=Cultural Contacts and Ethnic Origins in Viking Age Wales and Northern Britain: The Case of Albanus, Britain's First Inhabitant and Scottish Ancestor |journal=Journal of Medieval History |volume=41 |number=2 |pages=131–154 |doi=10.1080/03044181.2015.1030438 |issn=0304-4181 |eissn=1873-1279 |ref=E3 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Ewart |first1=G |last2=Pringle |first2=D |last3=Caldwell |first3=D |last4=Campbell |first4=E |author4-link=Ewan Campbell |last5=Driscoll |first5=S |last6=Forsyth |first6=K |author6-link=Katherine Forsyth |last7=Gallagher |first7=D |last8=Holden |first8=T |last9=Hunter |first9=F |last10=Sanderson |first10=D |last11=Thoms |first11=J |year=2004 |title=Dundonald Castle Excavations, 1986–93 |journal=Scottish Archaeological Journal |volume=26 |issue=1–2 |pages=i–x, 1–166 |issn=1471-5767 |eissn=1766-2028 |jstor=27917525 |via=JSTOR |subscription=yes |ref=E5 }}
• {{cite book |last=Fellows-Jensen |first=G |year=1991 |chapter=Scandinavians in Dumfriesshire and Galloway: The Place-Name Evidence |chapter-url=http://ssns.org.uk/resources/Documents/Books/Galloway_1991/06_Fellows-Jensen_Galloway_1991_pp_77-96.pdf |chapter-format=PDF |editor1-last=Oram |editor1-first=RD |editor2-last=Stell |editor2-first=GP |title=Galloway: Land and Lordship |publisher=The Scottish Society for Northern Studies |location=Edinburgh |isbn=0 9505994 6 8 |pages=77–95 |via=Scottish Society for Northern Studies |ref=F3 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Firth |first=M |year=2016 |title=Allegories of Sight: Blinding and Power in Late Anglo-Saxon England |url=http://openjournals.arts.uwa.edu.au/index.php/cerae/article/view/66 |journal=Ceræ: An Australasian Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies |volume=3 |pages=1–33 |issn=2204-146X |ref=F6 }}
• {{cite book |last=Foley |first=A |year=2017 |chapter=Strathclyde |editor1-last=Echard |editor1-first=S |editor2-last=Rouse |editor2-first=R |title=The Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature in Britain |page=1 |doi=10.1002/9781118396957.wbemlb665 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781118396957 |ref=F7 }}
• {{cite book |last=Forsyth |first=K |year=2005 |chapter=Origins: Scotland to 1100 |pages=9–37 |editor-last=Wormald |editor-first=J |editor-link=Jenny Wormald |title=Scotland: A History |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-820615-1 |ref=F5 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Forte |first1=A |last2=Oram |first2=RD |last3=Pedersen |first3=F |year=2005 |title=Viking Empires |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-82992-2 |ref=F4 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Fulton |first=H |year=2000 |title=Tenth-Century Wales and Armes Prydein |url=https://journals.library.wales/view/1386666/1425845/6 |journal=Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion |volume=7 |hdl=10107/1425845 |hdl-access=free |pages=5–18 |issn=0959-3632 |via=Welsh Journals Online |ref=F8 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Halloran |first=K |year=2011 |title=Welsh Kings at the English Court, 928–956 |journal=The Welsh History Review |volume=25 |number=3 |issn=0043-2431 |eissn=0083-792X |doi=10.16922/whr.25.3.1 |pages=297–313 |ref=H11 }}
• {{cite thesis |last=Hicks |first=DA |year=2003 |title=Language, History and Onomastics in Medieval Cumbria: An Analysis of the Generative Usage of the Cumbric Habitative Generics Cair and Tref |url=https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/7401 |hdl=1842/7401 |hdl-access=free |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Edinburgh |via=Edinburgh Research Archive |ref=H3 }}
• {{cite book |last=Holland |first=T |year=2016 |title=Athelstan: The Making of England |publisher=Allen Lane |location= |series=Penguin Monarchs |isbn=978-0-241-18782-1 |type=EPUB |ref=H10 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Hudson |first=BT |year=1991 |title=Historical Literature of Early Scotland |url=http://scholarcommons.sc.edu/ssl/vol26/iss1/10 |journal=Studies in Scottish Literature |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=141–155 |issn=0039-3770 |via=Scholar Commons |ref=H12 }}
• {{cite book |last=Hudson |first=BT |year=1994 |title=Kings of Celtic Scotland |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, CT |isbn=0-313-29087-3 |issn=0885-9159 |via=Questia |subscription=yes |ref=H2 }}
• {{cite book |last=Hudson |first=BT |year=2002 |chapter=The Scottish Gaze |editor-last=McDonald |editor-first=R |title=History, Literature, and Music in Scotland, 700–1560 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto |pages=29–59 |isbn=0-8020-3601-5 |via=Google Books |ref=H9 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/20670 |title=Óláf Guthfrithson (d. 941) |last1=Hudson |first1=BT |year=2004 |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/20670 |accessdate=15 July 2016 |subscription=yes |ref=H6 }}
• {{cite book |last=Hudson |first=BT |year=2005 |title=Viking Pirates and Christian Princes: Dynasty, Religion, and Empire in the North Atlantic |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-516237-0 |via=Google Books |ref=H1 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Jakobsson |first=S |year=2016 |title=The Early Kings of Norway, the Issue of Agnatic Succession, and the Settlement of Iceland |journal=Viator |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=171–188 |doi=10.1484/J.VIATOR.5.112357 |issn=0083-5897 |eissn=2031-0234 |ref=J4 }}
• {{cite journal |last=James |first=AG |year=2009 |title=Review of P Cavill; G Broderick, Language Contact in the Place-Names of Britain and Ireland |url=http://www.clanntuirc.co.uk/JSNS/V3/JSNS3.pdf |format=PDF |journal=The Journal of Scottish Name Studies |volume=3 |pages=135–158 |issn=2054-9385 |via=Clann Tuirc |ref=J7 }}
• {{cite journal |last=James |first=AG |year=2011 |title=Dating Brittonic Place-Names in Southern Scotland and Cumbria |url=http://www.clanntuirc.co.uk/JSNS/V5/JSNS5.pdf |format=PDF |journal=The Journal of Scottish Name Studies |volume=5 |pages=57–114 |issn=2054-9385 |via=Clann Tuirc |ref=J6 }}
• {{cite journal |last=James |first=AG |year=2013 |title=P-Celtic in Southern Scotland and Cumbria: A Review of the Place-Name Evidence for Possible Pictish Phonology |url=http://www.clanntuirc.co.uk/JSNS/V7/JSNS7.pdf |format=PDF |journal=The Journal of Scottish Name Studies |volume=7 |pages=29–78 |issn=2054-9385 |via=Clann Tuirc |ref=J8 }}
• {{cite book |last=Jayakumar |first=J |year=2002 |chapter=The 'Foreign Policies' of Edgar 'the Peaceable' |editor-last=Morillo |editor-first=S |title=The Haskins Society Journal: Studies in Medieval History |volume=Vol. 10 |publisher=The Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |isbn=0-85115-911-7 |issn=0963-4959 |pages=17–37 |via=Google Books |ref=J2 }}
• {{cite thesis |last=Jennings |first=A |year=1994 |title=Historical Study of the Gael and Norse in Western Scotland From c.795 to c.1000 |url=https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/15749 |hdl=1842/15749 |hdl-access=free |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Edinburgh |via=Edinburgh Research Archive |ref=J1 }}
• {{cite book |last=Jennings |first=A |chapter=Isles, Kingdom of the |year=2015 |origyear=1997 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199677832.001.0001/acref-9780199677832-e-2321 |editor1-last=Crowcroft |editor1-first=R |editor2-last=Cannon |editor2-first=J |title=The Oxford Companion to British History |edition=2nd |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199677832.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-967783-2 |publisher=Oxford University Press |via=Oxford Reference |subscription=yes |ref=J3 }}
• {{cite book |last=Karkov |first=CE |year=2004 |title=The Ruler Portraits of Anglo-Saxon England |series=Anglo-Saxon Studies (series vol. 3) |issn=1475-2468 |publisher=The Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |isbn=1-84383-059-0 |ref=K3 }}
• {{cite book |last=Keynes |first=S |author-link=Simon Keynes |year=2001 |origyear=1997 |chapter=The Vikings in England, c.790–106 |editor-last=Sawyer |editor-first=P |editor-link=Peter Hayes Sawyer |title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |pages=48–82 |isbn=0-19-285434-8 |ref=K4 }}
• {{cite book |last=Keynes |first=S |year=2008 |chapter=Edgar, rex Admirabilis |editor-last=Scragg |editor-first=D |title=Edgar, King of the English, 959–975: New Interpretations |series=Publications of the Manchester Centre for Anglo-Saxon Studies (series vol. 8) |issn=1478-6710 |publisher=The Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |isbn=978-1-84383-399-4 |pages=3–58 |ref=KB1 }}
• {{cite book |last=Keynes |first=S |year=2015 |chapter=The Henry Loyn Memorial Lecture for 2008: Welsh Kings at Anglo-Saxon Royal Assemblies (928–55) |editor1-last=Gathagan |editor1-first=LL |editor2-last=North |editor2-first=W |title=The Haskins Society Journal: Studies in Medieval History |volume=Vol. 26 |publisher=The Boydell Press |pages=69–122 |jstor=10.7722/j.ctt17mvjs6.9 |via=JSTOR |subscription=yes |ref=K2 }}
• {{cite book |last=Koch |first=JT |year=2006 |chapter=Domnall Brecc |editor-last=Koch |editor-first=JT |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=Vol. 2 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |page=604 |isbn=1-85109-445-8 |ref=K1 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Lewis |first=SM |year=2016 |title=Vikings on the Ribble: Their Origin and Longphuirt |journal=Northern History |volume=53 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/0078172X.2016.1127570 |pages=8-25 |issn=0078-172X |eissn=1745-8706 |ref=L2 }}
• {{cite book |last=Macquarrie |first=A |year=1998 |origyear=1993 |chapter=The Kings of Strathclyde, c. 400–1018 |editor1-last=Grant |editor1-first=A |editor2-last=Stringer |editor2-first=KJ |title=Medieval Scotland: Crown, Lordship and Community |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |pages=1–19 |isbn=0-7486-1110-X |ref=M2 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4312 |title=Catroe (900/01–971) |last=Macquarrie |first=A |year=2004a |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/4312 |accessdate=19 June 2016 |subscription=yes |ref=M1 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/49382 |title=Donald (d. 975) |last=Macquarrie |first=A |year=2004b |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/49382 |accessdate=19 June 2016 |subscription=yes |ref=M3 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.pase.ac.uk/jsp/persons/CreatePersonFrames.jsp?personKey=12540 |title=Malcolm 4 (Male) |website=Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England |year=n.d. |accessdate=11 September 2017 |ref=M11 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Matthews |first=S |year=2007 |title=King Edgar, Wales and Chester: The Welsh Dimension in the Ceremony of 973 |journal=Northern History |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=9–26 |doi=10.1179/174587007X208209 |issn=0078-172X |eissn=1745-8706 |ref=M9 }}
• {{cite journal |last=McGuigan |first=N |year=2015a |title=Ælla and the Descendants of Ivar: Politics and Legend in the Viking Age |journal=Northern History |volume=52 |issue=1 |doi=10.1179/0078172X14Z.00000000075 |issn=0078-172X |eissn=1745-8706 |pages=20–34 |ref=M12 }}
• {{cite thesis |last=McGuigan |first=N |year=2015b |title=Neither Scotland nor England: Middle Britain, c.850–1150 |degree=PhD |url=https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/handle/10023/7829 |hdl=10023/7829 |hdl-access=free |publisher=University of St Andrews |via=St Andrews Research Repository |ref=M4 }}
• {{cite journal |last=McLeod |first=S |year=2015 |title=The Dubh Gall in Southern Scotland: The Politics of Northumbria, Dublin, and the Community of St Cuthbert in the Viking Age, c. 870-950 CE |url=http://www.limina.arts.uwa.edu.au/volumes/special-2015/mcleod |journal=Limina: A Journal of Historical and Cultural Studies |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=83-103 |issn=1833-3419 |via=Limina: A Journal of Historical and Cultural Studies |ref=M8 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Millar |first=RM |year=2009 |title=Review of OJ Padel; DN Parsons, A Commodity of Good Names: Essays in Honour of Margaret Gelling, Donington |url=http://www.clanntuirc.co.uk/JSNS/V3/JSNS3.pdf |format=PDF |journal=The Journal of Scottish Name Studies |volume=3 |pages=162–166 |issn=2054-9385 |via=Clann Tuirc |ref=M13 }}
• {{cite book |last=Minard |first=A |year=2006 |chapter=Cumbria |editor-last=Koch |editor-first=JT |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=Vol. 2 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |pages=514–515 |isbn=1-85109-445-8 |ref=M6 }}
• {{cite book |last=Minard |first=A |year=2012 |chapter=Cumbria |editor1-last=Koch |editor1-first=JT |editor2-last=Minard |editor2-first=A |title=The Celts: History, Life, and Culture |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-59884-964-6 |pages=234–235 |ref=M10 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Molyneaux |first=G |year=2011 |title=Why Were Some Tenth-Century English Kings Presented as Rulers of Britain? |journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |volume=21 |pages=59–91 |issn=0080-4401 |eissn=14740648 |doi=10.1017/S0080440111000041 |ref=M7 }}
• {{cite book |last=Molyneaux |first=G |year=2015 |title=The Formation of the English Kingdom in the Tenth Century |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-871791-1 |ref=M5 }}
• {{cite book |last=Naismith |first=R |year=2017 |title=Medieval European Coinage |volume=Vol. 8, Britain and Ireland, c. 400–1066 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780521260169 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139031370 |ref=N1 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Oram |first=RD |year=2008 |title=Royal and Lordly Residence in Scotland c 1050 to c 1250: An Historiographical Review and Critical Revision |journal=The Antiquaries Journal |volume=88 |doi=10.1017/S0003581500001372 |issn=0003-5815 |eissn=1758-5309 |pages=165–189 |ref=O3 }}
• {{cite book |last=Oram |first=RD |year=2011 |origyear=2001 |title=The Kings & Queens of Scotland |publisher=The History Press |location=Brimscombe Port |isbn=978-0-7524-7099-3 |via=Google Books |ref=O2 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Parsons |first=DN |year=2011 |title=On the Origin of 'Hiberno-Norse Inversion-Compounds' |url=http://www.clanntuirc.co.uk/JSNS/V5/JSNS5.pdf |format=PDF |journal=The Journal of Scottish Name Studies |volume=5 |pages=115–152 |issn=2054-9385 |via=Clann Tuirc |ref=P4 }}
• {{cite journal |year=1947 |title=Proceedings |journal=Transactions of the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archæological Society |url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-2055-1/dissemination/pdf/Article_Level_Pdf/tcwaas/002/1947/vol47/tcwaas_002_1947_vol47_0010.pdf |format=PDF |volume=47 |pages=199–233 |doi=10.5284/1032950 |doi-access=free |via=Archaeology Data Service |ref=P2 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Pugmire |first=M |year=2004 |title=The Possible Roman Road Between Ambleside and the Keswick Area; A Discussion of the Evidence and a Consideration of Remains on the North Slope of Dunmail Raise |journal=Transactions of the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society |url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-2055-1/dissemination/pdf/Article_Level_Pdf/tcwaas/003/2004/vol4/tcwaas_003_2004_vol4_0008.pdf |format=PDF |volume=4 |pages=105–122 |doi=10.5284/1032950 |doi-access=free |via=Archaeology Data Service |ref=P1 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Rose |first=RK |year=1982 |title=Cumbrian Society and the Anglo-Norman Church |journal=Studies in Church History |volume=18 |issn=0424-2084 |eissn=2059-0644 |doi=10.1017/S0424208400016089 |pages=119–135 |ref=R2 }}
• {{cite book |last=Schrijver |first=P |author-link=Peter Schrijver |year=1995 |title=Studies in British Celtic Historical Phonology |series=Leiden Studies in Indo-European (series vol. 5) |publisher=Rodopi |location=Amsterdam |isbn=90-5183-820-4 |ref=S16 }}
• {{cite book |last=Smyth |first=AP |author-link=Alfred P. Smyth |year=1989 |origyear=1984 |title=Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland, AD 80–1000 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=0 7486 0100 7 |ref=S9 }}
• {{cite book |last=Snyder |first=CA |author-link=Christopher Snyder |year=2003 |title=The Britons |series=The Peoples of Europe |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=0-631-22260-X |ref=S11 }}
• {{cite book |last=Stenton |first=F |author-link=Frank Stenton |year=1963 |title=Anglo-Saxon England |edition=2nd |series=The Oxford History of England (series vol. 2) |publisher=The Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |ol=24592559M |via=Open Library |registration=yes |ref=S8 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Stevenson |first=WH |year=1898 |title=The Great Commendation to King Edgar in 973 |journal=English Historical Review |volume=13 |number=51 |pages=505–507 |doi=10.1093/ehr/XIII.LI.505 |issn=0013-8266 |eissn=1477-4534 |jstor=547617 |via=JSTOR |subscription=yes |ref=S12 }}
• {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=A |year=2016 |title=The Shape of the State in Medieval Scotland, 1124–1290 |series=Oxford Studies in Medieval European History |publisher=Oxford University Press |publication-place=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-874920-2 |ref=T8 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Thornton |first=DE |year=2001 |title=Edgar and the Eight Kings, AD 973: Textus et Dramatis Personae |journal=Early Medieval Europe |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=49–79 |doi=10.1111/1468-0254.00079 |eissn=1468-0254 |ref=T5 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Todd |first=JM |year=2005 |title=British (Cumbric) Place-Names in the Barony of Gilsland, Cumbria |journal=Transactions of the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society |url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-2055-1/dissemination/pdf/Article_Level_Pdf/tcwaas/003/2005/vol5/tcwaas_003_2005_vol5_0009.pdf |format=PDF |volume=5 |pages=89–102 |doi=10.5284/1032950 |doi-access=free |via=Archaeology Data Service |ref=T4 }}
• {{cite book |last=Wadden |first=P |year=2015 |chapter=The Normans and the Irish Sea World in the Era of the Battle of Clontarf |editor1-last=McAlister |editor1-first=V |editor2-last=Barry |editor2-first=T |title=Space and Settlement in Medieval Ireland |publisher=Four Courts Press |location=Dublin |isbn=978-1-84682-500-2 |pages=15–33 |via=Academia.edu |ref=W15 }}
• {{cite book |last=Walker |first=IW |year=2013 |origyear=2006 |title=Lords of Alba: The Making of Scotland |publisher=The History Press |location=Brimscombe Port |isbn=978-0-7524-9519-4 |type=EPUB |ref=W14 }}
• {{cite book |last=Williams |first=A |year=1999 |author-link=Ann Williams (historian) |title=Kingship and Government in Pre-Conquest England, c.500–1066 |series=British History in Perspective |isbn=978-1-349-27454-3 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-27454-3 |publisher=Macmillan Press |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke |ref=W5 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Williams |first=A |year=2004a |title=An Outing on the Dee: King Edgar at Chester, AD 973 |journal=Mediaeval Scandinavia |volume=14 |pages=229–243 |via=Academia.edu |ref=W11 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8510 |title=Eadred (d. 955) |last=Williams |first=A |year=2004b |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8510 |accessdate=9 July 2016 |subscription=yes |ref=W12 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8501 |title=Edmund I (920/21–946) |last=Williams |first=A |year=2004c |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8501 |accessdate=9 July 2016 |subscription=yes |ref=W13 }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8463 |title=Edgar (943/4–975) |last=Williams |first=A |year=2014 |edition=January 2014 |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8463 |accessdate=29 June 2016 |subscription=yes |ref=W10 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=A |last2=Smyth |first2=AP |last3=Kirby |first3=DP |year=1991 |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Dark Age Britain: England, Scotland and Wales, c.500–c.1050 |publisher=Seaby |location=London |isbn=1-85264-047-2 |via=Google Books |ref=W16 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Winchester |first=AJL |year=2000 |title=Dividing Lines in a Moorland Landscape: Territorial Boundaries in Upland England |journal=Landscapes |volume=1 |issue=2 |issn=1466-2035 |eissn=2040-8153 |pages=16–34 |doi=10.1179/lan.2000.1.2.16 |ref=W2 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Woolf |first=A |author-link=Alex Woolf |year=1998 |title=Erik Bloodaxe Revisited |journal=Northern History |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=189–193 |doi=10.1179/007817298790178303 |issn=0078-172X |eissn=1745-8706 |ref=W8 }}
• {{cite book |last=Woolf |first=A |chapter=Anglo-Scottish Relations: 1. 900–1100 |year=2001 |editor-last=Lynch |editor-first=M |title=The Oxford Companion to Scottish History |series=Oxford Companions |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |pages=8–10 |isbn=0-19-211696-7 |ref=W3 }}
• {{cite book |last=Woolf |first=A |year=2002 |chapter=Amlaíb Cuarán and the Gael, 941–81 |editor-last=Duffy |editor-first=S |title=Medieval Dublin |volume=Vol. 3, Proceedings of the Friends of Medieval Dublin Symposium 2001 |publisher=Four Courts Press |location=Dublin |pages=34–43 |via=Academia.edu |ref=W17 }}
• {{cite book |last=Woolf |first=A |year=2007 |title=From Pictland to Alba, 789–1070 |series=The New Edinburgh History of Scotland (series vol. 2) |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-0-7486-1233-8 |ref=W1 }}
• {{cite book |last=Woolf |first=A |year=2009 |chapter=Scotland |editor-last=Stafford |editor-first=P |editor-link=Pauline Stafford |title=A Companion to the Early Middle Ages: Britain and Ireland, c.500–c.1100 |series=Blackwell Companions to British History |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Chichester |pages=251–267 |isbn=978-1-405-10628-3 |ref=W4 }}
• {{cite book |last=Woolf |first=A |year=2010 |chapter=Reporting Scotland in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle |pages=221–239 |editor-last=Jorgensen |editor-first=A |title=Reading the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Language, Literature, History |series=Studies in the Early Middle Ages (series vol. 23) |publisher=Brepols Publishers |location=Turnhout |isbn=978-2-503-52394-1 |doi=10.1484/M.SEM-EB.3.4457 |ref=W6 }}

• Parable of the Wheat and the Tares
• Parable of the Wicked Husbandmen
• Parable of the wicked husbandmen
• Parable of the Wise and the Foolish Builders
• Parable of the wise and the foolish builders
• Parable of the workers in the vineyard
• Parable of the Workers in the Vineyard
• Parable of the Yeast
• Parables and Paradoxes
• Parables and paradoxes
• Parables for wooden ears
• Parables of jesus
• Parables of Jesus
• Parabol
• Parabola Allegory
• Parabola (disambiguation)
• Parabola (DVD)
• Parabola DVD
• Parabola magazine
• Parabolanoi
• Parabolanus
• Parabola/Proofs
• Parabola (Tool song)
• Parabolic aluminized reflector
• Parabolic aluminumized reflector