| 词条 | Central Powers | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 释义 |
|conventional_long_name = Central Powers |native_name = {{native name|de|Mittelmächte}} {{native name|hu|Központi hatalmak}} {{native name|tr|İttifak Devletleri}} {{native name|bg|Централни сили|italics=no}} |common_name = Central Powers |status = Military alliance |era = World War I |date_pre = 7 October 1879 |event_pre = Dual Alliance {{smaller|(Germany{{\\}}Austria-Hungary)}} |event_start = |date_start = 28 June |event1 = {{nowrap|Ottoman–German Alliance}} |date_event1 = 2 August 1914 |event2 = Bulgaria–Germany treaty |date_event2 = {{ublist|class=nowrap |6 September 1915 {{smaller|(secret)}} |14 October 1915 {{smaller|(public)}}}} |event_end = Dissolved |date_end = 11 November |year_start = 1914 |year_end = 1918 |image_map = World War I on 1 August 1914.png |loctext = |map_caption = Central Powers on 1 August 1914:{{legend|Gold|Countries of the Central Powers}}{{legend|Yellow|Colonies, protectorates, and territories of the Central Powers}} |image_map2 = World War I on 11 November 1918.png |map_caption2 = Central Powers on 11 November 1918:{{legend|Gold|Countries, condominiums, and non-state actors of the Central Powers}}{{legend|Yellow|Colonies, occupations, protectorates, and territories of the Central Powers}} {{plainlist|style = padding-left: 0.6em; text-align: left;|Quadruple Alliance:
}} {{plainlist | style = padding-left: 0.6em; text-align: left; |Co-belligerents
}} {{plainlist | style = padding-left: 0.6em; text-align: left; |Client states:
}} |p1 = Dual Alliance (1879) |p2 = Triple Alliance (1882) |p3 = Ottoman–German alliance |p4 = Ottoman–Bulgarian alliance |p5 = Bulgaria–Germany treaty (1915) }} The Central Powers ({{lang-de|Mittelmächte}}; {{lang-hu|Központi hatalmak}}; {{lang-tr|İttifak Devletleri}} / {{lang|tr|Bağlaşma Devletleri}}; {{lang-bg|Централни сили|translit=Tsentralni sili}}), consisting of Germany, {{nowrap|Austria-Hungary}}, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria—hence also known as the Quadruple Alliance[1] ({{lang-de|Vierbund}})—was one of the two main coalitions that fought World War I (1914–18). It faced and was defeated by the Allied Powers that had formed around the Triple Entente. The Powers' origin was the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879. Despite having nominally joined the Triple Alliance before, Italy did not take part in World War I on the side of the Central Powers; the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did not join until after World War I had begun, even though the Ottoman Empire had retained close relations with both Germany and Austria-Hungary since the beginning of the 20th century. Member statesThe Central Powers consisted of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the beginning of the war. The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers later in 1914. In 1915, the Kingdom of Bulgaria joined the alliance. The name "Central Powers" is derived from the location of these countries; all four (including the other groups that supported them except for Finland and Lithuania) were located between the Russian Empire in the east and France and the United Kingdom in the west. Finland, Azerbaijan, and Lithuania joined them in 1918 before the war ended and after the Russian Empire collapsed The Central Powers were composed of the following nations:[2]
CombatantsGermany{{Main|German entry into World War I|German Empire}}War justificationsIn early July 1914, in the aftermath of the assassination of Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the immediate likelihood of war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Kaiser Wilhelm II and the German government informed the Austro-Hungarian government that Germany would uphold its alliance with Austria-Hungary and defend it from possible Russian intervention if a war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia took place.[6] When Russia enacted a general mobilization, Germany viewed the act as provocative.[7] The Russian government promised Germany that its general mobilization did not mean preparation for war with Germany but was a reaction to the events between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.[7] The German government regarded the Russian promise of no war with Germany to be nonsense in light of its general mobilization, and Germany, in turn, mobilized for war.[7] On 1 August, Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia stating that since both Germany and Russia were in a state of military mobilization, an effective state of war existed between the two countries.[8] Later that day, France, an ally of Russia, declared a state of general mobilization.[8] In August 1914, Germany waged war on Russia, the German government justified military action against Russia as necessary because of Russian aggression as demonstrated by the mobilization of the Russian army that had resulted in Germany mobilizing in response.[9] After Germany declared war on Russia, France with its alliance with Russia prepared a general mobilization in expectation of war. On 3 August 1914, Germany responded to this action by declaring war on France.[10] Germany, facing a two-front war, enacted what was known as the Schlieffen Plan, that involved German armed forces needing to move through Belgium and swing south into France and towards the French capital of Paris. This plan was hoped to quickly gain victory against the French and allow German forces to concentrate on the Eastern Front. Belgium was a neutral country and would not accept German forces crossing its territory. Germany disregarded Belgian neutrality and invaded the country to launch an offensive towards Paris. This caused Great Britain to declare war against the German Empire, as the action violated the Treaty of London that both nations signed in 1839 guaranteeing Belgian neutrality and defense of the kingdom if a nation reneged. Subsequently, several states declared war on Germany in late August 1914, with Italy declaring war on Austria-Hungary in 1915 and Germany on 27 August 1916, the United States declaring war on Germany on 6 April 1917 and Greece declaring war on Germany in July 1917. Colonies and dependencies{{Main|German colonial empire}}
Upon its founding in 1871, the German Empire controlled Alsace-Lorraine as an "imperial territory" incorporated from France after the Franco-Prussian War. It was held as part of Germany's sovereign territory.
Germany held multiple African colonies at the time of World War I. All of Germany's African colonies were invaded and occupied by Allied forces during the war. Cameroon, German East Africa, and German Southwest Africa were German colonies in Africa. Togoland was a German protectorate in Africa.
The Kiautschou Bay concession was a German dependency in East Asia leased from China in 1898. It was occupied by Japanese forces following the Siege of Tsingtao.
German New Guinea was a German protectorate in the Pacific. It was occupied by Australian forces in 1914. German Samoa was a German protectorate following the Tripartite Convention. It was occupied by the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in 1914. Austria-Hungary{{Main|Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I|Austria-Hungary}}War justificationsAustria-Hungary regarded the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand as being orchestrated with the assistance of Serbia.[6] The country viewed the assassination as setting a dangerous precedent of encouraging the country's South Slav population to rebel and threaten to tear apart the multinational country.[7] Austria-Hungary formally sent an ultimatum to Serbia demanding a full-scale investigation of Serbian government complicity in the assassination, and complete compliance by Serbia in agreeing to the terms demanded by Austria-Hungary.[6] Serbia submitted to accept most of the demands, however Austria-Hungary viewed this as insufficient and used this lack of full compliance to justify military intervention.[11] These demands have been viewed as a diplomatic cover for what was going to be an inevitable Austro-Hungarian declaration of war on Serbia.[11] Austria-Hungary had been warned by Russia that the Russian government would not tolerate Austria-Hungary crushing Serbia.[11] However, with Germany supporting Austria-Hungary's actions, the Austro-Hungarian government hoped that Russia would not intervene and that the conflict with Serbia would be a regional conflict.[6] Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia resulted in Russia declaring war on the country and Germany in turn declared war on Russia, setting off the beginning of the clash of alliances that resulted in the World War.
Austria-Hungary was internally divided into two states with their own governments, joined in communion through the Habsburg throne. Austrian Cisleithania contained various duchies and principalities but also the Kingdom of Bohemia, the Kingdom of Dalmatia, the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. Hungarian Transleithania comprised the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. In Bosnia and Herzegovina sovereign authority was shared by both Austria and Hungary. Ottoman Empire{{Main|Ottoman Empire}}War justificationsThe Ottoman Empire joined the war on the side of the Central Powers in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire had gained strong economic connections with Germany through the Berlin-to-Baghdad railway project that was still incomplete at the time.[12] The Ottoman Empire made a formal alliance with Germany signed on 2 August 1914.[13] The alliance treaty expected that the Ottoman Empire would become involved in the conflict in a short amount of time.[13] However, for the first several months of the war the Ottoman Empire maintained neutrality though it allowed a German naval squadron to enter and stay near the strait of Bosphorus.[14] Ottoman officials informed the German government that the country needed time to prepare for conflict.[14] Germany provided financial aid and weapons shipments to the Ottoman Empire.[13] After pressure escalated from the German government demanding that the Ottoman Empire fulfill its treaty obligations, or else Germany would expel the country from the alliance and terminate economic and military assistance, the Ottoman government entered the war with the recently acquired cruisers from Germany, the Yavuz Sultan Selim (formerly SMS Goeben) and the Midilli (formerly SMS Breslau) launching a naval raid on the Russian port of Odessa, thus engaging in a military action in accordance with its alliance obligations with Germany. Russia and the Triple Entente declared war on the Ottoman Empire.[15] Bulgaria{{Main|Kingdom of Bulgaria}}{{See also|Bulgaria during World War I|}}War justificationsBulgaria was still resentful after its defeat in July 1913 at the hands of Serbia, Greece and Romania. It signed a treaty of defensive alliance with the Ottoman Empire on 19 August 1914. It was the last country to join the Central Powers, which Bulgaria did in October 1915 by declaring war on Serbia. It invaded Serbia in conjunction with German and Austro-Hungarian forces. Bulgaria held claims on the region of Vardar Macedonia then held by Serbia following the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and (from the Bulgarian point of view), the costly Treaty of Bucharest (1913).[16] As a condition of entering WW1 on the side of the Central Powers, Bulgaria was granted the right to reclaim that territory.[17][18] Declarations of war
Co-belligerentsDervish movementThe Dervish movement was a rebel Somali movement led by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan seeking independence of Somali territories. Dervish forces fought against Italian and British forces in Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland during World War I in the Somaliland Campaign. The Dervish movement received support from Germany and the Ottoman Empire. It also briefly received support by the Ethiopian Empire from 1915–1916.[19] {{flagicon image|Flag of Transvaal.svg}} South African RepublicIn opposition to the Union of South Africa, which had joined the war, Boer rebels refounded the South African Republic in 1914 and engaged in the Maritz Rebellion. Germany assisted the rebels, and the rebels operated in and out of the German colony of German South-West Africa. The rebels were defeated by British imperial forces. {{flagicon image|Flag of Darfur.svg}} Sultanate of DarfurThe Sultanate of Darfur forces fought against British forces in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan during World War I in the Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition. Client statesDuring 1917 and 1918, the Finns under Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim and Lithuanian nationalists fought Russia for a common cause. With the Bolshevik attack of late 1917, the General Secretariat of Ukraine sought military protection first from the Central Powers and later from the armed forces of the Entente. The Ottoman Empire also had its own allies in Azerbaijan and the Northern Caucasus. The three nations fought alongside each other under the Army of Islam in the Battle of Baku. German client states
The Belarusian People's Republic was a client state of Germany created in 1918.
The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia was a client state of Germany created in 1918.
The Crimean Regional Government was a client state of Germany created in 1918.
The Don Republic was closely associated with the German Empire and fought against the Bolsheviks.
The Kingdom of Finland was a client state of Germany created in 1918. Prior to the declaration of the kingdom, Finland existed as an autonomous Grand Duchy of Russia since 1809.
The Kuban People's Republic was a client state of Germany created in 1918.
The Kingdom of Lithuania was a client state of Germany created in 1918.
The Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus was associated with the Central Powers.
The Democratic Republic of Georgia declared independence in 1918 which then to led border conflicts between newly formed republic and Ottoman Empire. Soon after Ottoman Empire invaded the republic and quickly reached Borjomi. This forced Georgia to ask for help from Germany which they were granted. Germany forced the Ottomans to withdraw from Georgian territories and recognize Georgian sovereignty. Germany, Georgia and the Ottomans signed a peace treaty, the Treaty of Batum which ended the conflict with the last two. in return Georgia become a German "ally". This time period of Georgian-German friendship was known as German Caucasus expedition.
The Kingdom of Poland was a client state of Germany created in 1916.[20] This government was recognized by the emperors of Germany and Austria-Hungary in November 1916, and it adopted a constitution in 1917.[21] The decision to create a Polish State was taken by Germany in order to attempt to legitimize its military occupation amongst the Polish inhabitants, following upon German propaganda sent to Polish inhabitants in 1915 that German soldiers were arriving as liberators to free Poland from subjugation by Russia.[22] The state was utilized by the German government alongside punitive threats to induce Polish landowners living in the German-occupied Baltic territories to move to the state and sell their Baltic property to Germans in exchange for moving to Poland, and efforts were made to induce similar emigration of Poles from Prussia to the state.[23]
The Ukrainian State was a client state of Germany led by Hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi, who overthrew the government of the Ukrainian People's Republic.[24]
The United Baltic Duchy was a proposed client state of Germany created in 1918. Ottoman client states
In 1918, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, facing Bolshevik revolution and opposition from the Muslim Musavat Party, was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire, which expelled the Bolsheviks while supporting the Musavat Party.[25] The Ottoman Empire maintained a presence in Azerbaijan until the end of the war in November 1918.[25]
Controversial casesStates listed in this section were not officially members of the Central Powers, but at some point during the war engaged in cooperation with one or more Central Powers members on a level that makes their neutrality disputable. {{flagicon image|Flag of Ethiopia (1897-1936; 1941-1974).svg}} EthiopiaThe Ethiopian Empire was officially neutral throughout World War I but widely suspected of sympathy for the Central Powers between 1915 and 1916. At the time, Ethiopia was one of the few independent states in Africa and a major power in the Horn of Africa. Its ruler, Lij Iyasu, was widely suspected of harbouring pro-Islamic sentiments and being sympathetic to the Ottoman Empire. The German Empire also attempted to reach out to Iyasu, dispatching several unsuccessful expeditions to the region to attempt to encourage it to collaborate in an Arab Revolt-style uprising in East Africa. One of the unsuccessful expeditions was led by Leo Frobenius, a celebrated ethnographer and personal friend of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Under Iyasu's directions, Ethiopia probably supplied weapons to the Muslim Dervish rebels during the Somaliland Campaign of 1915 to 1916, indirectly helping the Central Powers' cause.[27] Fearing the rising influence of Iyasu and the Ottoman Empire, the Christian nobles of Ethiopia conspired against Iyasu over 1915. Iyasu was first excommunicated by the Ethiopian Orthodox Patriarch and eventually deposed in a coup d'état on 27 September 1916. A less pro-Ottoman regent was installed on the throne.[27] Non-state combatants{{See also|Zimmermann Telegram}}Other movements supported the efforts of the Central Powers for their own reasons, such as the radical Irish Nationalists who launched the Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916; they referred to their "gallant allies in Europe". However, the majority of Irish Nationalists supported the British and allied war effort up until 1916 when the Irish political landscape was changing. In 1914, Józef Piłsudski was permitted by Germany and Austria-Hungary to form independent Polish legions. Piłsudski wanted his legions to help the Central Powers defeat Russia and then side with France and the UK and win the war with them. {{div col|content=
}} Armistice and treatiesBulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on 29 September 1918, following a successful Allied advance in Macedonia. The Ottoman Empire followed suit on 30 October 1918 in the face of British and Arab gains in Palestine and Syria. Austria and Hungary concluded ceasefires separately during the first week of November following the disintegration of the Habsburg Empire and the Italian offensive at Vittorio Veneto; Germany signed the armistice ending the war on the morning of 11 November 1918 after the Hundred Days Offensive, and a succession of advances by New Zealand, Australian, Canadian, Belgian, British, French and US forces in north-eastern France and Belgium. There was no unified treaty ending the war; the Central Powers were dealt with in separate treaties.[28]
Leaders{{Main|Leaders of the Central Powers of World War I}}See also{{Portal|World War I}}
Footnotes1. ^{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmylife00hinduoft|title=Out of my life|author=Hindenburg, Paul von|work=Internet Archive | page=113|publisher=London : Cassell|year=1920}} 2. ^{{cite book |title=A World Undone: The Story of the Great War, 1914 to 1918 |last=Meyer |first=G.J. |year=2007 |publisher=Delta Trade Paperback |isbn=978-0-553-38240-2}} 3. ^All figures presented are for the year 1913. 4. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y9GP9gtGlkgC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 S.N. Broadberry, Mark Harrison. The Economics of World War I]. illustrated ed. Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 9-10. 5. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=EHI3PCjDtsUC&pg=PA172&dq=Direct+and+Indirect+Costs+of+the+Great+World+War&cd=5#v=onepage&q=Direct%20and%20Indirect%20Costs%20of%20the%20Great%20World%20War&f=false|title=The European Powers in the First World War|author=Spencer Tucker|year=1996|publisher=|page=173|isbn=9780815303992}} 6. ^1 2 3 Cashman, Greg; Robinson, Leonard C. An Introduction to the Causes of War: Patterns of Interstate Conflict from World War I to Iraq. Rowman & Littlefield. 2007. P57 7. ^1 2 3 Meyer, G.J. A World Undone: The Story of the Great War, 1914 to 1918. Delta Book. 2006. P39. 8. ^1 Meyer, G.J. A World Undone: The Story of the Great War, 1914 to 1918. Delta Book. 2006. P95. 9. ^Hagen, William W. German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation. P228. 10. ^Tucker, Spencer C. A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. 2009. P1556. 11. ^1 2 Cashman, Greg; Robinson, Leonard C. An Introduction to the Causes of War: Patterns of Interstate Conflict from World War I to Iraq. Rowman & Littlefield. 2007. P61 12. ^Hickey, Michael. The First World War: Volume 4 The Mediterranean Front 1914–1923. P31. 13. ^1 2 Afflerbach, Holger; David Stevenson, David. An Improbable War: The Outbreak of World War 1 and European Political Culture. Berghan Books. 2012. P. 292. 14. ^1 Kent, Mary. The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire. end ed. Frank Cass. 1998. P119 15. ^Afflerbach, Holger; David Stevenson, David. An Improbable War: The Outbreak of World War I and European Political Culture. Berghan Books. 2012. P. 293. 16. ^{{cite web|last1=Hall|first1=Richard C.|title=Bulgaria in the First World War|url=http://russiasgreatwar.org/media/arc/bulgaria.shtml|website=Russia's Great War and Revolution|accessdate=22 September 2017}} 17. ^{{cite book|last1=Jelavich|first1=Charles|last2=Jelavich|first2=Barbara|title=The establishment of the Balkan national states, 1804–1920|date=1986|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|isbn=978-0-295-96413-3|pages=284–297|edition=1st pbk.}} 18. ^Richard C. Hall, "Bulgaria in the First World War." Historian 73.2 (2011): 300-315. 19. ^{{cite book|last1=Mukhtar|first1=Mohammed|title=Historical Dictionary of Somalia|date=25 February 2003|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=126|url=https://books.google.com/?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC&pg=PA126&dq=iyasu+dervish#v=onepage&q=iyasu%20dervish&f=false|accessdate=28 February 2017|isbn=9780810866041}} 20. ^The Regency Kingdom has been referred to as a puppet state by Norman Davies in Europe: A history ([https://books.google.com/books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&pg=PA910&dq=%22Kingdom+of+Poland%22+1916+puppet&as_brr=3&sig=ACfU3U36q9omC0a0E-_kH_82ad24_4tZzQ Google Print, p. 910]); by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki in A Concise History of Poland ([https://books.google.com/books?id=HMylRh-wHWEC&pg=PA218 Google Print, p. 218]); by Piotr J. Wroblel in Chronology of Polish History and Nation and History ([https://books.google.com/books?id=lzWHDEE6OqkC&pg=PA454 Google Print, p. 454]); and by Raymond Leslie Buell in Poland: Key to Europe ([https://books.google.com/books?id=-KcfGbrKptoC&dq=Poland+Key+to+Europe&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=FD__x2FPA9&sig=q5DV-zsbYtatQg6k-2pBp5Z4ddA&hl=en&ei=dIraSa2kIqrrlQfOq4H6Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2#PPA68,M1 Google Print, p. 68]: "The Polish Kingdom... was merely a pawn [of Germany]"). 21. ^J. M. Roberts. Europe 1880–1945. P. 232. 22. ^Aviel Roshwald. Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 1914–23. Routledge, 2002. P. 117. 23. ^Annemarie Sammartino. The Impossible Border: Germany and the East, 1914–1922. Cornell University, 2010. P. 36-37. 24. ^Kataryna Wolczuk. The Moulding of Ukraine: The Constitutional Politics of State Formation. P37. 25. ^1 Zvi Lerman, David Sedik. Rural Transition in Azerbaijan. P12. 26. ^Hala Mundhir Fattah. The Politics of Regional Trade in Iraq, Arabia, and the Gulf, 1745–1900. P121. 27. ^1 {{cite news |title=How Ethiopian prince scuppered Germany's WW1 plans |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-37428682 |accessdate=22 October 2018 |publisher=BBC News |date=25 September 2016}} 28. ^{{cite book |editor1-last=Davis |editor1-first=Robert T. |title=U.S. Foreign Policy and National Security: Chronology and Index for the 20th Century |publisher=Praeger Security International |location=Santa Barbara, California |volume=1 |year=2010 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gsM1JiXAMJEC&pg=PA49 49] |isbn=978-0-313-38385-4}} References{{reflist}}Further reading
26 : World War I|1914 establishments in Austria|1914 establishments in Austria-Hungary|1914 establishments in Bulgaria|1914 establishments in Europe|1914 establishments in Hungary|1914 establishments in the Ottoman Empire|1918 disestablishments in Austria|1918 disestablishments in Austria-Hungary|1918 disestablishments in Bulgaria|1918 disestablishments in Europe|1918 disestablishments in Hungary|1918 disestablishments in the Ottoman Empire|20th century in international relations|20th-century military alliances|Austria-Hungary in World War I|Bulgaria in World War I|Former countries in Africa|Former countries in Asia|German Empire in World War I|Germany–Ottoman Empire relations|Military alliances involving Austria-Hungary|Military alliances involving Bulgaria|Military alliances involving the German Empire|Military alliances involving the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire in World War I |
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