| 词条 | Environmental dumping |
| 释义 |
Environmental dumping is the practice of transfrontier shipment of waste (household waste, industrial/nuclear waste, etc.) from one country to another. The goal is to take the waste to a country that has less strict environmental laws, or environmental laws that are not strictly enforced. The economic benefit of this practice is cheap disposal or recycling of waste without the economic regulations of the original country. An example of an attempt at environmental dumping is the story of the decommissioned French aircraft carrier, the FS Clemenceau, which was originally sold to a ship-breaking yard in Gujarat India to be demolished and recycled as scrap.[1] The Indian Supreme Court ruled in 2006 that it could not enter Indian waters due to the high level of toxic waste and 700 tons of asbestos present on the ship, forcing the French government to take the Clemenceau back. The ship was subsequently blocked from entering the Suez Canal for the same reason. In 2009, the task of recycling the vessel was ultimately taken over by specialist recyclers at Hartlepool in the United Kingdom.[2] Environmental dumpingThe shipment of waste between countries has been referred to as “transfrontier shipment” of waste. Transfrontier waste is shipped within the European Union (EU) and between the European Union and other countries. Most of this waste is traded by Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. The waste is typically non-hazardous and includes metals, plastics, and paper products. In 2007, it is estimated that OECD countries exported between 4 and 5 million tons of metal and paper waste. OECD countries also exported near a half of million tons of recovered plastics in 2007. Some of these wastes that are transported can be hazardous waste. These hazardous wastes can cause potential health risks to humans and the environment. According to the Basel Convention, there is at least 8 million tons of hazardous waste imported and exported every year.[3] The Basel Convention was created in 1989 but started enforcing rules in 1992. The purpose of the Convention is to control the hazardous waste that was imported and exported throughout the EU. The Convention is a great contributor to stopping the shipment of illegal waste.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}} In May 2005, 60 containers were seized that were on their way from the United Kingdom to China.[3] The containers seized by Dutch authorities were supposed to be for paper but actually contained household wastes.[3] Since neither the UK, China, nor Dutch had agreed to the importation of the wastes, the waste was shipped back. The Basel Convention also deals with the popular growing issue of E-waste. The Waste Shipment Regulation confirms what can be shipped to, from, and between EU countries. These regulation rules divide the waste into three separate lists: Green List, Amber List, and Red List.
These items are considered to be non-hazardous and more environmentally friendly. Some of these items may include paper and plastic that can be recycled. These types of shipment don’t have to receive prior permission to cross international waters and be shipped to parts of the European Union.
Materials are considered to be mixed on this list containing both non-hazardous and hazardous parts. These materials can contain metal bearing wastes, organic and inorganic wastes, and/or organic or inorganic constituents. A company or country shipping these items would have to have prior consent before exporting the materials. As of 2007, consent for the shipment of waste is received by Dublin City Council.
This includes reasonably hazardous materials. These materials contain principally organic or inorganic constituents, which include polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs). Ocean dumping{{main|Ocean dumping}}Shipment of waste from country to country can also involve dumping waste into the ocean. Ocean dumping has been a problem since the 19th century. It was legal to dump industrial waste into the ocean until the Ocean Dumping Act was passed in 1972. During the years of 1970 and 1980 alone, it was estimated that 25 million tons of waste including scrap metal, chemicals, and acids were dumped into the ocean. Ocean dumping can lead to eutrophication which depletes the oxygen from the water, in turn killing marine life. Ocean dumping is placed into three lists: Gray List, Black List, and White List.
The most recent example of hazardous waste being dumped into the ocean occurred along Côte d'Ivoire in Africa in 2006. Hundreds of tons of waste product were dumped into the ocean from a ship by the name of Probo Koala.[4] The ship was chartered by an international oil trader in the Netherlands.[4] The incident precipitated a health crisis and impacted the health of 100 000 people in the vicinity.[5] The oil trader (Trafigura) paid 200 million dollars to help with cleanup.[6] The owner of the local company that was responsible for disposing the chemicals in various places was given 20 years in jail.[4] In the European Union, new regulations on the shipment of hazardous and non-hazardous materials were implemented in 2007. According to the new regulations, the EU will no longer be able to export their hazardous wastes to developing countries that do not have the capabilities to deal with the waste in an environmentally friendly way. E-waste, such as computers, cannot be shipped to countries that are not in the EU or the European Free Trade Association. States and countries that are members of the EU or EFTA must conduct inspections periodically to make sure that all regulations are being followed and physically check containers to verify that the containers hold only what is authorized. Finally, if the country that is taking the waste is unable to accept or dispose of the waste then the sender must pay to take their waste back.[7] Ship dismantlingShip dismantling is another form of trans frontier waste that is shipped from country to country. Many ships are broken down into parts that can be recycled. Many parts of the ships are hazardous and can potentially pollute the areas that they are broken down in. The ship parts can contain asbestos, PCB's, and oil sludge. All of these components can be a potential health risk and harm the environment. Most ship scrapping industries are in developing countries where the laws (environmentally as well as occupationally) are not as strict as in developed countries. International Maritime Organization states that India is the leader in ship dismantling, followed by China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. The aircraft carrier Clemenceau was denied access to Indian waters because it contained asbestos. The French aircraft was carried from France to Britain to be recycled on February 8, 2009 despite the abundance of asbestos. The EU Commission proposed improvements to be made to improve the ship dismantling as well as the ocean dumping process on November 19, 2008. Public consultations were held in 2009, and stakeholder workshops were organized between 2009 and 2011. On March 26, 2009, the EU Parliament adopted a resolution on the Communication that was adopted by the Commission on October 21, 2009.[8] The European Council’s Conclusions endorse the Hong Kong Convention on environmentally responsible ship recycling, adopted in May 2009.[9] According to the International Maritime Organization, he Hong Kong Convention “intends to address all the issues around ship recycling, including the fact that ships sold for scrapping may contain environmentally hazardous substances such as asbestos, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, ozone-depleting substances and others. It also addresses concerns raised about the working and environmental conditions at many of the world's ship recycling locations.”[10] See also{{Portal|Environment}}
References1. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2006/jan/22/theobserver.observerbusiness12|title=For India, breaking up is hard to do|last=Joseph|first=Anto|date=2006-01-21|newspaper=The Guardian|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|access-date=2016-12-15}} 2. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/feb/06/clemenceau-ghost-ship-teesside|title=Contaminated aircraft carrier finds final resting place in Hartlepool|last=Wainwright|first=Martin|date=2009-02-06|newspaper=The Guardian|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|access-date=2016-12-15}} 3. ^1 2 "The Basel Convention At A Glance." basel.int 11 Feb. 2009 4. ^1 2 "Two jailed for dumping toxic waste in Ivory Coast." Nrc./nl/international. 23 Oct. 2008. Web. 6 Feb. 2009 5. ^"Two guilty in Ivory Coast toxic waste dumping." MSNBC.com 23 Oct. 2008. Web. 6 Feb. 2009 6. ^Coulibaly, Loucoumane. "Two Jailed for Ivory Coast toxic dumping." Reuters.com 23 Oct. 2008. Web. 6 Feb. 2009 7. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.euractiv.com/section/trade-society/news/eu-waste-shipment-rules-tightened/|title=EU waste-shipment rules tightened|website=EurActiv.com|language=en-GB|access-date=2016-12-15}} 8. ^{{Cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/ships/eu_policy.htm|title=Ship recycling policy - Waste - Environment - European Commission|website=ec.europa.eu|access-date=2016-12-15}} 9. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/envir/110626.pdf|title=Council Conclusions on an EU Strategy for better ship dismantling|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}} 10. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.imo.org/fr/OurWork/Environment/ShipRecycling/Pages/Default.aspx|title=Ship Recycling|website=www.imo.org|access-date=2016-12-15}} Further reading
2 : Protectionism|Waste management |
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