“Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

People from various ethnicities reside in the United Kingdom. Intermittent migration from Northern Europe has been happening for millennia, with other groups such as British Jews also well established. Since World War II, substantial immigration from the New Commonwealth, Europe, and the rest of the world has altered the demography of many cities in the United Kingdom.

History

Indigenous British people are descended from the varied ethnic stocks that settled on Britain from the time of the last ice age until the 11th century. Included in these peoples are pre-Celts, Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and the Normans.^[1] Some recent genetic analysis has suggested that the majority of the traceable ancestors of the modern British population arrived between 15,000 and 7,600 years ago and that the British broadly share a common ancestry with the Basque people,^[2] although there is no consensus amongst geneticists.^[3]

The first Jews in Britain were brought to England in 1070 by King William the Conqueror, while Roma in Britain have been documented since the 16th century. The UK has a history of small-scale non-European immigration, with Liverpool having the oldest Black British community, dating back to at least the 1730s during the period of the African slave trade,^[4] and the oldest Chinese community in Europe, dating to the arrival of Chinese seamen in the 19th century.^[5]

Since 1948 substantial immigration from Africa, the West Indies and the Indian Subcontinent has been a legacy of ties forged by the British Empire.^[6] Migration from new EU member states in Central and Eastern Europe since 2004 has resulted in growth in these population groups.^[7]

Sociologist Steven Vertovec argues that whereas "Britain's immigrant and ethnic minority population has conventionally been characterized by large, well-organized African-Caribbean and South Asian communities of citizens originally from Commonwealth countries or formerly colonial territories", more recently the level of diversity of the population has increased significantly, as a result of "an increased number of new, small and scattered, multiple-origin, transnationally connected, socio-economically differentiated and legally stratified immigrants". He terms this "superdiversity".^[8]

Official classification of ethnicity

The 2001 UK Census classified ethnicity into several groups: White, Black, Asian, Mixed, Chinese and Other.^[10]^[11] These categories formed the basis for all National Statistics ethnicity statistics until the 2011 Census results were issued.^[11] The 1991 UK census was the first to include a question on ethnicity.^[12]^[13] A number of academics have pointed out that the ethnicity classification employed in the census and other official statistics in the UK since 1991 involve confusion between the concepts of ethnicity and race.^[14]^[15] David I. Kertzer and Dominique Arel argue that this is the case in many censuses, and that "the case of Britain is illuminative of the recurring failure to distinguish race from ethnicity".^[15] User consultation undertaken for the purpose of planning the 2011 census revealed that some participants thought the "use of colour (White and Black) to define ethnicity is confusing or unacceptable".^[16]

Population by ethnicity

According to the 2011 Census, the ethnic composition of the United Kingdom was as set out in the table below.

1. ^{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1288231.stm|title=Are the British a race?|last=Duffy|first=Jonathan|date=20 April 2001|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=5 April 2010}}
2. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/2006/10/mythsofbritishancestry/|title=Myths of British ancestry|last=Oppenheimer|first=Stephen|date=21 October 2006|work=Prospect|accessdate=4 April 2010}}
3. ^{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E00EED91431F935A35750C0A9619C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2|title=A United Kingdom? Maybe|last=Wade|first=Nicholas|date=6 March 2007|work=The New York Times|accessdate=5 April 2010}}
4. ^{{Cite book |last=Costello |first=Ray |title=Black Liverpool: The Early History of Britain's Oldest Black Community 1730–1918 |publisher=Picton Press |location=Liverpool |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-873245-07-1}}
5. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.mersey-gateway.org/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1369|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724204513/http://www.mersey-gateway.org/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1369|archivedate=24 July 2009 |title=Culture and Ethnicity Differences in Liverpool – Chinese Community |publisher=Chambré Hardman Trust |accessdate=9 March 2015}}
6. ^{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/uk/2002/race/short_history_of_immigration.stm|title=Short History of Immigration|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=18 March 2015}}
7. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/briefings/migration-flows-a8-and-other-eu-migrants-and-uk|title=Migration Flows of A8 and other EU Migrants to and from the UK|first=Carlos|last=Vargas-Silva|publisher=Migration Observatory, University of Oxford|date=10 April 2014|accessdate=18 March 2015}}
8. ^{{cite journal|title=Super-diversity and its implications|first=Steven|last=Vertovec|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|year=2007|volume=30|issue=6|pages=1024–1054|doi=10.1080/01419870701599465}}
9. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/harmonisation/primary-set-of-harmonised-concepts-and-questions/ethnic-group.pdf|title=Harmonised Concepts and Questions for Social Data Sources - Primary Standards: Ethnic Group|publisher=Office for National Statistics|accessdate=8 March 2015}}
10. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/about-statistics/classifications/archived/ethnic-interim/presenting-data/index.html|title=Presenting ethnic and national groups data|publisher=Office for National Statistics|accessdate=11 October 2009}}
11. ^¹{{cite news|url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/about/ethnic_group_statistics/how_define/default.asp|title=How do you define ethnicity?|date=4 November 2003|publisher=Office for National Statistics|accessdate=11 October 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327060339/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/about/ethnic_group_statistics/how_define/default.asp|archivedate=27 March 2008}}
12. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnicity.ac.uk/medialibrary/briefings/dynamicsofdiversity/how-has-ethnic-diversity-grown-1991-2001-2011.pdf|title=How has ethnic diversity grown 1991-2001-2011?|publisher=ESRC Centre on Dynamics of Ethnicity|date=December 2012|accessdate=4 March 2015}}
13. ^{{cite journal|first1=K.|last1=Sillitoe|first2=P. H.|last2=White|title=Ethnic Group and the British Census: The Search for a Question|journal=Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A (Statistics in Society)|volume=155|issue=1|year=1992|pages=141–163|jstor=2982673}}
14. ^{{cite journal|title=Negotiating race and ethnicity: Exploring the implications of the 1991 census|first=Roger|last=Ballard|journal=Patterns of Prejudice|volume=30|issue=3|year=1996|pages=3–33|doi=10.1080/0031322X.1996.9970192|url=http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/288/1/negotiating.pdf}}
15. ^¹{{cite book|title=Census and Identity: The Politics of Race, Ethnicity, and Language in National Censuses|chapter=Censuses, identity formation, and the struggle for political power|year=2002|first1=David I.|last1=Kertzer|first2=Dominique|last2=Arel|editor-first1=David I.|editor-last1=Kertzer|editor-first2=Dominique|editor-last2=Arel|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=1–42}}
16. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/census/2011/the-2011-census/2011-census-questionnaire-content/final-recommended-questions-2011---ethnic-group.pdf|title=Final recommended questions for the 2011 Census in England and Wales: Ethnic group|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=October 2009|accessdate=4 March 2015}}
17. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-and-quick-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-the-united-kingdom---part-1/rft-ks201uk.xls|title=2011 Census: Ethnic group, local authorities in the United Kingdom|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=11 October 2013|accessdate=13 April 2015}}
18. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/scotland/KS201SC.pdf|title=Table KS201SC - Ethnic group: All people|publisher=National Records of Scotland|date=2013|accessdate=28 April 2015}}
19. ^{{cite web|url=http://ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/measuring-equality/equality/ethnic-nat-identity-religion/ethnic-group/index.html|title=Ethnic group|publisher=Office for National Statistics|accessdate=27 April 2015|date=2011-11-02}}
20. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/cornish-granted-minority-status-within-the-uk|title=Cornish granted minority status within the UK|publisher=Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government|date=24 April 2014|accessdate=10 February 2018}}
21. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=mmaRpUa1oSoC|title=The Demographic Characteristics of Immigrant Populations|last=Haug|first=Werner|last2=Compton|first2=Paul|last3=Courbage|first3=Youssef|date=2002|publisher=Council of Europe|isbn=9789287149749|language=en}}
22. ^{{cite book|last=Favell|first=Adrian|title=Philosophies of Integration: Immigration and the Idea of Citizenship in France and Britain|publisher=Palgrave|location=Basingstoke|year=1998|isbn=978-0-312-17609-9}}
23. ^{{cite book|last=Kymlicka|first=Will|title=Multicultural Odysseys: Navigating the New International Politics of Diversity|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2007|page=72|isbn=978-0-19-928040-7}}
24. ^{{cite journal|last=Panayi|first=Panikos|year=2004|title=The evolution of multiculturalism in Britain and Germany: An historical survey|journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development|volume=25|issue=5/6|pages=466–480 |doi=10.1080/01434630408668919}}
25. ^{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3596047.stm|title=Race chief wants integration push|date=3 April 2004|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=4 April 2010}}
26. ^¹{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3600791.stm|title=So what exactly is multiculturalism?|date=5 April 2004|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=4 April 2010}}
27. ^{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4740633.stm|title=Davis attacks UK multiculturalism|date=3 August 2005|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=4 April 2010}}
28. ^{{citation |url=http://www.york.ac.uk/ipup/projects/raceandfaith/discussion/bam-hutchison.html|title= Race, Faith, and UK Policy: a brief history|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605081638/http://www.york.ac.uk/ipup/projects/raceandfaith/discussion/bam-hutchison.html |website=University of York|archive-date=June 5, 2011|access-date=October 27, 2016}}
29. ^{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4137990.stm|title=UK majority back multiculturalism|date=10 August 2005|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=4 April 2010}}
30. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsos-mori.com/_assets/pdfs/Multiculturalism-Briefing.pdf|title=Doubting multiculturalism|date=May 2009|work=Trend Briefing 1|publisher=Ipsos MORI|page=3|accessdate=4 April 2010}}
31. ^{{cite web|url=http://old.ethnos.co.uk/what_is_britishness_CRE.pdf|title=Citizenship and belonging: What is Britishness?|last=ETHNOS Research and Consultancy|date=November 2005|publisher=Commission for Racial Equality|page=37|accessdate=24 October 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823153515/http://old.ethnos.co.uk/what_is_britishness_CRE.pdf|archivedate=23 August 2011|df=}}
32. ^{{cite web|url=http://old.ethnos.co.uk/decline_of_britishness.pdf|title=The decline of Britishness: A research study|last=ETHNOS Research and Consultancy|date=May 2006|publisher=Commission for Racial Equality|page=4|accessdate=24 October 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823153440/http://old.ethnos.co.uk/decline_of_britishness.pdf|archivedate=23 August 2011|df=}}
33. ^¹²³⁴{{Cite book|title=Ethnic Minorities, Electoral Politics and Political Integration in Britain|last=Adolino|first=Jessica|publisher=Pinter|year=1998|isbn=|location=London|pages=43–53}}
34. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.localgov.co.uk/Ethnic-minorities-under-represented-in-public-sector-leadership-roles-PM-says/43963|title=Ethnic minorities ‘under-represented’ in public sector leadership roles, PM says|last=Eichler|first=William|date=October 2017|work=LocalGov|access-date=6-12-2018}}
35. ^¹{{Cite web|url=https://www.ukren.org/uploads/sn01156.pdf|title=Ethnic Minorities in Politics, Government and Public Life|last=Wood|first=John|last2=Cracknell|first2=Richard|date=October 2013|website=House of Commons Library|page=4|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=5-12-2018}}
36. ^{{Cite journal|url=https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7483|title=Social background of MPs 1979-2017|last=Audickas|first=Lukas|last2=Cracknell|first2=Richard|date=November 2018|website=House of Commons library|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=5-12-2018}}
37. ^¹²{{Cite web|url=http://www.britishfuture.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Ethnic-minority-MPs.Final_.23.3.15-1.pdf|title=The race for representation|last=Katwala|first=Sunder|last2=Ballinger|first2=Steve|date=March 2015|website=British Future|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=5-12-2018}}
38. ^{{Cite book|title=The political integration of ethnic minorities in Britain|last=Heath|first=Anthony Francis|last2=Fisher|first2=Stephen|last3=Rosenblatt|first3=Gemma|last4=Sanders|first4=David|last5=Sobolewska|first5=Maria|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780191508073|location=Oxford|pages=|oclc=857059445}}
39. ^{{Cite journal|url=https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7501|title=Political disengagement in the UK: who is disengaged|last=Dempsey|first=Noel|last2=Johnston|first2=Neil|date=September 2018|website=House of Commons library|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=5-12-2018}}
40. ^¹²{{Cite web|url=https://green-park.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/GP-Local-Gov-Leadership-2018.pdf|title=Local Government Leadership 2018|last=Lupin|first=Neil|last2=Tulsiani|first2=Raj|date=2018|website=Green Park|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=5-12-2018}}
41. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.improvementservice.org.uk/documents/research/scotlands-councillors-2017-22.pdf|title=Scotland's Councillors 2017-22|last=Scottish Government|first=|date=2017|work=Improvement Service|access-date=05-12-2018}}
42. ^¹{{Cite journal|last=Anwar|first=Muhammad|date=2001|title=The participation of ethnic minorities in British politics|journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies|volume=27:3|issue=3|pages=533–549|doi=10.1080/136918301200266220}}
43. ^¹{{Cite web|url=https://www.nfer.ac.uk/publications/LGCL01/LGCL01.pdf|title=Census of Local Authority Councillors 2013|last=Kettlewell|first=Kelly|last2=Phillips|first2=Liz|date=May 2014|website=www.nfer.ac.uk|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=5-12-2018}}

Note: In the 2011 Census Black Africans surpassed Black Caribbeans for the first time and became the largest black group:

https://www.voice-online.co.uk/article/2011-census-british-africans-now-dominant-black-group

National minorities

The British government recognises the Scottish, Welsh, Irish and Cornish peoples as national minorities under the Council of Europe's Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, which the UK signed in 1995 and ratified in 1998.^[20]

Multiculturalism and integration

It is estimated that in 1950 there were no more than 20,000 non-white residents in the United Kingdom, mainly in England and almost all born overseas.^[21] With considerable migration after the Second World War making the UK an increasingly ethnically and racially diverse state especially in London, race relations policies have been developed that broadly reflect the principles of multiculturalism, although there is no official national commitment to multiculturalism.^[22]^[23]^[24] This model has faced criticism on the grounds that it has failed to sufficiently promote social integration,^[25]^[26]^[27] although some commentators have questioned the dichotomy between diversity and integration that this critique presumes.^[26] It has been argued that the UK government has since 2001, moved away from policy characterised by multiculturalism and towards the assimilation of minority communities.^[28]

Attitudes to multiculturalism

A poll conducted by MORI for the BBC in 2005 found that 62 per cent of respondents agreed that multiculturalism made Britain a better place to live, compared to 32 percent who saw it as a threat.^[29] Ipsos MORI data from 2008 by contrast, showed that only 30 per cent saw multiculturalism as making Britain a better place to live, with 38 per cent seeing it as a threat. 41 per cent of respondents to the 2008 poll favoured the development of a shared identity over the celebration of diverse values and cultures, with 27 per cent favouring the latter and 30 per cent undecided.^[30]

A study conducted for the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) in 2005 found that in England, the majority of ethnic minority participants called themselves British, whereas indigenous English participants said English first and British second. In Wales and Scotland the majority of white and ethnic minority participants said Welsh or Scottish first and British second, although crucially they saw no incompatibility between the two identities.^[31]

Other research conducted for the CRE found that white participants felt that there was a threat to Britishness from large-scale immigration, the claims that they perceived ethnic minorities made on the welfare state, a rise in moral pluralism and perceived political correctness. Much of this frustration was vented at Muslims rather than minorities in general. Muslim participants in the study reported feeling victimised and stated that they felt that they were being asked to choose between Muslim and British identities, whereas they saw it possible to be both.^[32]

Political representation

It has been seen over the years that representation in continuing to develop, but the problem remains whether there will be a representative group in parliament and local councils. Overtime, it has been seen and generalised the Labour party have been the most favourable party for non-white minorities.

Representation in Parliament

The representation for ethnic minorities in Parliament started in 1987, with four ethnic minorities being elected into parliament, following the statement by the Home Affairs Select Committee in 1981. Dianne Abbot was among them, who is now a prominent figure within the Labour party, as part of the shadow cabinet. From these, all of them were Labour, who have had significantly higher minority candidates to become an MP in comparison to the Conservative party; Labour since 1987 have had 46 MPs whereas Conservatives have had 22.

Prior to the 2010 elections, the Conservatives had only 2 MPs who were minorities and this increased to 11 after the 2010 General Elections.^[35] After the 2017 General Elections, 52 minority MPs were elected, shared between Labour (32) and the Conservative (19) and one from the Liberal Democrats.^[36] This confirmed the ending of Labour's monopoly, being the party to represent ethnic minorities but now there is a rebalancing amongst the leading parties in Britain.^[37] However, other parties are still behind in order to a part of the rebalancing, never having an ethnic minority representation in parliament.^[37]^[35] However, the Liberal Democrats are not at fault for lacking representation for minority MPs as it has been revealed between 1992 and 2010, they increased their candidates for MPs from a minority background: 5, (1992), 17 (1997), 29 (2001), 40 (2005) and 44 (2010); it reveals they should consider candidates for more winnable seats to allow more representation.^[38] Nonetheless in 2004, Parmjit Singh Gil won the by-election for the Liberal Democrats but failed to retain his seat in the 2005 elections.

Even though, there has been an increase in ethnic minorities representation, if they are to be represented correctly, there should 88 ethnic minority MPs in parliament to match the population proportionally.^[39] Katwala and Ballinger have concluded that as there has been progression in the past 20 years, there can potentially be a representative Parliament by 2020 as well as an ethnic minority as the Prime Minister.^[37] Looking at the pace of development, this could be the case as minorities are now being selected for the Cabinet; currently Sajid Javid is serving as Home Secretary.

Representation in Local Councils

A report by Green Park (2018) revealed across all local government sectors, there is only a representation of 3.7% for minorities.^[40] London councils has the highest percentage for representation in their local councils in late 2017, 10.5%; this increased from 5.6% previously in the year.^[40] Even though representation grew in London as it has a large population for ethnic minorities, the under-representation gap is still huge as 40% of Londoners are minorities. Outside London, councils have an average of 3% minority representation.^[40] In Scotland, 3.2% are ethnic minorities in local governments which is the most representative as ethnic minorities dictate 3.32% of the population.^[41]

Since the 1880s, the number of minority councillors have been increasing over time. However, the main parties that minorities were involved in were the Labour party as both Adolino found 94.4% of the minorities are involved with the Labour party in local councils.^[33] Anwar confirmed that this is trend that continues and we can see this today.^[42]

There were 35 minority councillors in London local councils in 1978 and increased in 1990 to 193;^[33] this was 10% of the 1,915 councillors representing 20% of London's minorities.^[33] Even though it was not representative, this displayed the great achievement in order to pursue representation during the time. The problem has not improved other time, there is only 3.7% representation for minorities across all councils according to a Census of Local Authority Councillors for 14% of the population;^[43] Labour remained to have the most representative councillors with 9.2%, followed by Conservatives having 1.5%.^[43]

Anwar's statement concludes the misrepresentation of minorities in local councils in Britain which is still relevant today: At local council level the representation of ethnic minority has made slow progress and it still does not reflect the nature of multi-ethnic Britain^[42].