| 词条 | Fossorial |
| 释义 |
A fossorial (from Latin fossor, meaning "digger") is an animal adapted to digging which lives primarily, but not solely, underground. Some examples are badgers, naked mole-rats, clams, and mole salamanders. Most bees and wasps are called "fossorial Hymenoptera". Many rodent species are also considered fossorial as they live in burrows for most of the day, though they may be surface-dwelling during other parts of the day. Species that live exclusively underground, on the other hand, are described as subterranean fauna. Some organisms are fossorial to aid in temperature regulation while others use the underground habitat for protection from predators or for food storage. An animal is said to be sub-fossorial if it shows limited adaptations to a fossorial lifestyle.[1] Prehistoric evidenceThe physical adaption of fossoriality is widely accepted as being widespread among many prehistoric phyla and taxa, such as bacteria and early eukaryotes. Fossorial animals appeared simultaneously with the colonization of land by arthropods in the late Ordovician period (over 440 million years ago).[2] Other notable early burrowers include Eocaecilia and possibly Dinilysia.[3] The oldest example of burrowing in synapsids, the lineage which includes modern mammals and their ancestors, is a Cynodont, Thrinaxodon liorhinus, found in the Karoo of South Africa, estimated to be 251 million years old. Evidence shows that this adaption occurred due to dramatic mass extinctions in the Permian period.[1] Physical adaptationsThere are six major external modifications, as described by H.W. Shimer in 1903,[5] that are shared in all mammalian burrowing species:
Other important physical features include a subsurface adjusted skeleton: a triangularly shaped skull, a prenasal ossicle, chisel-shaped teeth, effectively fused and short lumbar vertebrae, well-developed sternum, strong forelimb and weaker hind limb bones.[5] Due to the lack of light, one the most important features of fossorial animals are the development of physical, sensory traits that allow them to communicate and navigate in the dark subsurface environment. Considering that sound travels slower in the air and faster through solid earth, the use of seismic (percussive) waves on a small scale is more advantageous in these environments. Several different uses are well documented. The Cape mole rat (Georychus capensis) uses drumming behavior to send messages to its kin through conspecific signaling. The Namib Desert golden mole (Eremitalpa granti namibensis) can detect termite colonies and similar prey underground due to the development of a hypertrophied malleus. This adaptation allows for better detection of low-frequency signals.[6] The most likely explanation of the actual transmission of these seismic inputs, captured by the auditory system, is the use of bone conduction; whenever vibrations are applied to the skull, the signals travel through many routes to the inner ear.[7] Physiological modificationsMany fossorial and semi-fossorial mammals that live in temperate zones with partially frozen grounds tend to hibernate. Hibernation occurs due to the seasonal lack of soft, succulent herbage and other sources of nutrition; therefore leading mammals to hibernate.[5] Many fossorial and semi-fossorial mammals that live in temperate zones with partially frozen grounds tend to hibernate. A conclusion made by W.H. Shimer is that, in general, a species that chose, voluntarily or not, adaptions to the fossorial lifestyle, likely originated as primitive and defenceless rodents, insectivores or edentates that failed to abundantly find food and protection from predators.[5] The life underground in these subsurface environments also have direct links to the animal's metabolism and energetics. The weight of the individual specimen has direct implications here. Animals weighing more than {{convert|80|g}} have comparably lower basal rates{{specify|date=July 2018|should this be basal metabolic rate?}} than animals weighing lower than {{convert|60|g}}, considering species that spend only part of their time burrowing. The average fossorial animal has a basal rate between 60% and 90%. Further observations conclude that larger burrowing animals, such as hedgehogs or armadillos, have lower thermal conductance than smaller animals, most likely to reduce heat storage in their burrows.[8] Geological and ecological implicationsOne important impact on the environment caused by fossorial animals is bioturbation, defined by Marshall Wilkinson as the alteration of fundamental properties of the soil, including surface geomorphic processes.[9] It is measured that small fossorials, such as ants, termites, and earthworms displace a massive amount of soil. The total global rates displaced by these animals are equivalent to the total global rates of tectonic uplift.[9] The presence of burrowing animals also has a direct impact on the soil's composition, structure, and growing vegetation. The impact these animals have can range from feeding, harvesting, caching and soil disturbances, but can differ considering the large diversity of fossorial species – especially herbivorous species. The net effect is usually composed of an alteration of the composition of plant species and increased plant diversity, which can cause issues with standing crops, as the homogeneity of the crops is affected.[10] Burrowing also impacts the nitrogen cycle in the affected soil. Mounds and bare soils that contain burrowing animals have considerably higher amounts of {{chem|NH|4|+}} and {{chem|NO|3|−}} as well as greater nitrification potential and microbial {{chem|NO|3|−}} consumption than in vegetated soils. The primary mechanism for this occurrence is caused by the removal of the covering grassland.[11] See also
References1. ^1 Damiani, R, 2003, Earliest evidence of cynodont burrowing, The Royal Society Publishing, Volume 270, Issue 1525 2. ^http://science.sciencemag.org/content/235/4784/61 3. ^http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/1/10/e1500743 4. ^Cubo, J, 2005, A heterochronic interpretation of the origin of digging adaptions in the northern water vole, Arvicola terrestris (Rodentia: Arvicolidae), Biological Journal of Linnean Society, Volume 87, pp. 381–391 5. ^1 2 3 4 Shimer H.W., 1903, Adaptations to aquatic. Arboreal, fossorial, and cursorial habits in mammals.III. Fossorial Adaptations, The American Naturalist, Vol.XXXVII, No. 444 - December 1903 6. ^Narins, P.M, 1997, Use of seismic signals by fossorial south African mammals: a neurological goldmine, Brain research bulletin, Vol. 44, Issue 5, pp. 641–646 7. ^Mason, M.J., 2001, Middle ear structures in fossorial mammals: a comparison with non-fossorial species, Journal of Zoology, Vol. 255, Issue 4, pp. 467–486 8. ^McNab, B, 1979, The Influence of body size on the Energetics and Distribution of Fossorial and Burrowing Mammals, Ecology, Volume 60, pages 1010-1021 9. ^1 Wilkinson, M.T, Richards, P.J., Humphreys, G.S., 2009, Breaking ground: Pedological, geological, and ecological implications of soil bioturbation, Earth Science Reviews, Vol. 97, Issues 1-4, pp. 257–272 10. ^Huntly, N, Reichman, O.J., 1994, Effects of Subterranean Mammalian Herbivores on Vegetation, Journal of Mammalogy, Volume 75, pp. 852–859 11. ^Canals, H, 2003, How Disturbance by Fossorial Mammals Alters N Cycling in a California Annual Grassland. Ecology, Volume 84, pp. 875–881
| title = Fossorial - Definition of Fossorial | publisher = Amateur Entomologists' Society | url = http://www.amentsoc.org/insects/glossary/terms/fossorial | accessdate =1 September 2012 }}
| title = Fossorial Legs | url = http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/learning/resources/Entomology/externalMorphology/imagePages/legs_fossorial.html | publisher = University of Sydney | accessdate =1 September 2012 }} 2 : Habitats|Cave animals |
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