“Genocide definitions”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

This is a list of scholarly and international legal definitions of genocide,^[1] a word coined with genos (Greek: birth, kind, race) and an English suffix -cide by Raphael Lemkin in 1944.^[2] The precise etymology of the word however, is a compound of the ancient Greek word γένος (birth, genus, kind) or Latin word gēns (tribe, clan) and the Latin word caedō (cut, kill). While there are various definitions of the term, almost all international bodies of law officially adjudicate the crime of genocide pursuant to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG).{{sfn|Dunoff|Ratner|Wippman|2006|pp=615–621}} This and other definitions are generally regarded by the majority of genocide scholars to have an "intent to destroy" as a requirement for any act to be labelled genocide; there is also growing agreement on the inclusion of the physical destruction criterion.{{sfn|Jones|2006|pp=20–21, 24}} Writing in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international legal credibility that others lack, other definitions have also been postulated. Jonassohn and Björnson go on to say that for various reasons, none of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support.{{sfn|Jonassohn|Björnson|1998|pp=133–135}}

Date

Author

Definition

1944

Chalk|1997|p=47}}

By "genocide" we mean the destruction of an ethnic group…. Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups….

(Axis Rule in Occupied Europe ix. 79)^[2]{{sfn|Orentlicher|2001|loc=Genocide}}

1945

Count 3 of the indictment of the 24 Nazi leaders at the Nuremberg Trials

[3]{{sfn>Lemkin|1946|pp=227–230}}

1946

Raphael Lemkin

American Scholar, Volume 15, no. 2 (April 1946), p. 227–230){{sfn>Lemkin|1946|pp=227–230}}

1946

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 96 (I) (11 December)

Genocide is a denial of the right of existence of entire human groups, as homicide is the denial of the right to live of individual human beings; such denial of the right of existence shocks the conscience of mankind, …and is contrary to moral law and to the spirit and aims of the United Nations. …

The General Assembly, therefore, affirms that genocide is a crime under international law…whether the crime is committed on religious, racial, political or any other grounds…^[4]

1948

The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). Article 2:

Any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. (Article 2 CPPCG)

1959

Chalk|1997|p=48}}

The Crime of State, Volume 2, Leiden, 1959, p. 125.){{sfn>Jones|2006|p=15}}{{sfn|Kieser|Schaller|2001}}

1975

Vahakn Dadrian, Armenian sociologist

A Typology of Genocide){{sfn>Jones|2006|pp=14, 15}}

1976

Chalk|1997|p=48}}

Genocide: State Power and Mass Murder){{sfn>Jones|2006|pp=14, 16}}

1981

Charny|1997|p=64}}

Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century){{sfn>Jones|2006|pp=3, 14, 16}}

1982

Jack Nusan Porter, Ukrainian American sociologist

Genocide and Human Rights: A Global Anthology) need verifying-->{{sfn>Jones|2006|p=16}}

1984

Yehuda Bauer, Israeli historian and Holocaust scholar

Jones|2006|p=16}}^[5]

1987

Tony Barta, historian

Barta|1987|pp=237–252}} (see also Australian genocide debate)

1987

Isidor Wallimann and Michael N. Dobkowski

Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2000. Reissue of an early work.){{sfn>Jones|2006|pp=17, 32}}

1988

Henry Huttenbach

Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 289–303.){{sfn>Jones|2006|p=17}}{{sfn|Bilinsky|1999|pp=147–156}}

1988

Helen Fein, sociologist

Genocide: A Sociological Perspective, London){{sfn>Kieser|Schaller|2001}}{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=17}}

1988

Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr, professors of political science

International Studies Quarterly, 37:3, 1988){{sfn>McGill staff|2007|loc=What is Genocide?}}

1990

Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn

The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies, Yale University Press){{sfn>Jones|2006|p=17}}{{sfn|ISG staff|2001|loc=Definitions of Genocide}}{{sfn|Chalk|Jonassohn|1990|p=35}}

1990

John L. P. Thompson and Gail A. Quets

Genocide and Social Conflict: A Partial Theory and Comparison, p. 248){{sfn>Thompson|Quets|1990|pp=245–266}}

1993

Helen Fein

Genocide: A Sociological Perspective, 1993/1990){{sfn>McGill staff|2007|loc=What is Genocide?}}{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=18}}

1994

Steven T. Katz, Jewish philosopher and scholar

The Holocaust in Historical Perspective, Vol. 1, 1994) [Modified by Adam Jones in 2000 to read, "murder in whole or in substantial part…"]{{sfn>ISG staff|2001|loc=Definitions of Genocide}}{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=18}}

1994

Israel W. Charny, psychologist and genocide scholar

1994 Israel Charny}}Genocide in the generic sense means the mass killing of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under conditions of the essential defencelessness of the victim. (Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions ed. George Andreopoulos){{sfn|ISG staff|2001|loc=Definitions of Genocide}}{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=18}}{{sfn|Charny|1997|p=76}}

1996

Irving Louis Horowitz, sociologist

Jones|2006|p=18}}^[6]

2002

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court

Article 6 of the Rome Statute provides that "genocide" means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such (a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

2003

Barbara Harff

Jones|2006|p=18}}

2005

Mark Levene, historian

en masse physical elimination of that aggregate, in toto, or until it is no longer perceived to represent a threat.{{sfn>Levene|2005|p=35}}{{sfn|Jones|2016|p=96}}

2007

Martin Shaw, sociologist

Shaw|Schott|2007|p=154}}{{sfn|Jones|2016|pp=96–97}}

2013

Adrian Gallagher

Gallagher|2013|p=37}}

2016

John Cox, historian

Cox|2016|p=17}}

Notes

1. ^Based on a list by Adam Jones {{harv|Jones|2006|pp=15–18}}
2. ^¹Oxford English Dictionary "Genocide" citing Raphael Lemkin Axis Rule in Occupied Europe ix. 79
3. ^Oxford English Dictionary "Genocide" citing Sunday Times 21 October 1945
4. ^{{cite web|format=PDF|url=https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/033/47/IMG/NR003347.pdf?OpenElement|title=United Nations General Assembly Resolution 96 (I): The Crime of Genocide|website=United Nations|date=11 December 1946|accessdate=13 October 2017}}
5. ^Adam Jones notes that Bauer distinguishes between "genocide" and "holocaust" {{harv|Jones|2006|p=16}}
6. ^Adam Jones notes that Horowitz supports "carefully distinguishing the [Jewish] Holocaust from genocide"; and that Horowitz also refers to "the phenomenon of mass murder, for which genocide is a synonym".

References

{{Citation |last=Barta |first=Tony |year=1987 |chapter=Relations of Genocide: Land and Lives in the Colonization of Australia |editor-first=I. |editor-last=Wallimann |editor2-first=M. N. |editor2-last=Dobkowski |title=Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and case studies of mass death |location=New York |publisher=Greenwood}}

{{Citation |last=Bilinsky |first=Yaroslav |url=http://www.faminegenocide.com/resources/bilinsky.html |title=Was the Ukrainian Famine of 1932–1933 Genocide? |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=1 |year=1999 |number=1(2) |pages=147–156 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107060045/http://www.faminegenocide.com/resources/bilinsky.html |archivedate=7 November 2012 |deadurl=no |doi=10.1080/14623529908413948}}

{{Citation |last1=Chalk |first1=Frank Robert |last2=Jonassohn |first2=Kurt |title=The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UgzAi1DD75wC&pg=PA23 |accessdate=13 October 2017 |year=1990 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-04446-1 |page=23}}

{{citation |last=Cox |first=John |year=2016 |title=To Kill a People: Genocide in the Twentieth Century |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=17}}

{{Citation |last=Chalk |first=Frank |editor-last=Andreopoulos |editor-first=George J. |year=1997 |origyear=1994 |title=Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions |chapter=Redefining Genocide |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5I34DePIxYC&lpg=PP1&dq=Genocide%20Conceptual%20and%20Historical%20Dimensions&pg=PA47#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |publication-place=Philadelphia |pages=47–63 |isbn=978-0-8122-1616-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5I34DePIxYC&lpg=PP1&dq=Genocide%20Conceptual%20and%20Historical%20Dimensions&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false }}

{{Citation |last=Charny |first=Israel W. |editor-last=Andreopoulos |editor-first=George J. |year=1997 |origyear=1994 |title=Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions |chapter=Toward a Generic Definition of Genocide |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5I34DePIxYC&pg=PA64 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |publication-place=Philadelphia |pages=64–94 |isbn=978-0-8122-1616-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5I34DePIxYC}}

{{Citation |last=Dunoff |first=Jeffrey L. |last2=Ratner |first2=Steven R. |last3=Wippman |first3=David |title=International Law: Norms, Actors, Process |pages=615–621 |edition=2nd |year=2006 |publisher=Aspen |isbn=978-0-7355-5735-2}}

{{Citation |author=ISG staff |year=2001 |url=http://www.instituteforthestudyofgenocide.org/oldsite/definitions/def_genocide.html |title=Social Scientists' Definitions of Genocide |publisher=Institute for the Study of Genocide, International Association of Genocide Scholars |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905170004/http://www.instituteforthestudyofgenocide.org/oldsite/definitions/def_genocide.html |archivedate=5 September 2008 |deadurl=no}}

{{Citation |last=Jones |first=Adam |url=http://www.genocidetext.net/gaci_excerpts.htm|title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction|publisher=Routledge/Taylor & Francis Publishers|year=2006|accessdate=13 October 2017 |isbn=0-415-35385-8 |chapterurl=http://www.genocidetext.net/gaci_origins.pdf|chapter=Chapter 1: The Origins of Genocide |pages=15–18}}

{{citation |last=Jones |first=Adam |year=2016 |title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-53385-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=i3auDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT96 96]}}

{{Citation |last1=Jonassohn |first1=Kurt |last2=Björnson |first2=Karin Solveig |title=Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations: In Comparative Perspective |year=1998|publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-4128-2445-3 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jIxCUXI38zcC&pg=PA133 133]–135}}

{{Citation |first1=Hans-Lukas |last1=Kieser |author-link1=Hans-Lukas Kieser |first2=Dominik |last2=Schaller |date=24 October 2001 |url=http://www.hist.net/kieser/mak4/Genoziddefinitionen.html |title=Kolloquium: Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah |publisher=hist.net |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210221841/http://www.hist.net/kieser/mak4/Genoziddefinitionen.html |archivedate=10 February 2012}}

{{Citation |last=Lemkin |first=Raphael |authorlink=Raphael Lemkin |url=http://www.preventgenocide.org/lemkin/americanscholar1946.htm |title=Genocide |journal=American Scholar |volume=15 |number=2 |date=April 1946 |pages=227–230}}

{{Citation |last=Levene |first=Mark |year=2005 |title=Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 1: The Meaning of Genocide |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-1-85043-752-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4GzlPzOAyZwC&pg=PA35 35]}}

{{Citation |author=McGill staff |url=http://efchr.mcgill.ca/WhatIsGenocide_en.php?menu=2 |year=2007 |title=2007 Global Conference on the Prevention of Genocide – What is Genocide? |publisher=McGill University Faculty of Law |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505161753/http://efchr.mcgill.ca/WhatIsGenocide_en.php?menu=2 |archivedate=5 May 2007 |df=dmy}} A collection of genocide definitions by the Aegis Trust

{{Citation |last=Orentlicher |first=Diane F. |year=2001 |url=http://www.crimesofwar.org/thebook/genocide.html |title=Crimes of War: A–Z Guide: Genocide |publisher=The Crimes of War Education Project |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926194650/http://www.crimesofwar.org/thebook/genocide.html |archivedate=26 September 2008}}

{{Citation |last=Gallagher|first=Adrian |year=2013 |title=Genocide and its Threat to Contemporary International Order |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-349-44759-6}}

{{citation |last1=Shaw |first1=Martin |authorlink1=Martin Shaw (sociologist) |last2=Schott |first2=Gareth |title=What is Genocide? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVa6hyBaTV8C |year=2007 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited |isbn=978-0-7456-3183-7 |page=154}}

{{Citation |last=Thompson |first=John L. |first2=Gail A. |last2=Quets |year=1990 |title=Genocide and Social Conflict: A Partial Theory and Comparison |pages=245–266 |editor-first=L. |editor-last=Kriesberg |journal=Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and change |volume=12 |location=Greenwood, CN |publisher=JAI Press}}

4 : Crimes|Definitions|Genocide|Murder