“God in Hinduism”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The concept of God in Hinduism varies in its diverse traditions.^[1]^[2]^[3] Hinduism spans a wide range of beliefs such as henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, atheism and nontheism.^[1]^[4]^[5]

Forms of theism find mention in the Bhagavad Gita. Emotional or loving devotion (bhakti) to a primary god such as avatars of Vishnu (Krishna for example), Shiva and Devi emerged in the early medieval period, and is now known as Bhakti movement.^[6]^[7] Other Hindus consider atman within every living being to be same as Vishnu or Shiva or Devi,^[8]{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp=80-81, 210 with footnotes}}^[9] or alternatively identical to the eternal metaphysical Absolute called (Brahman) in Hinduism.^[10]^[11]^[12] Such a philosophical system of Advaita or non-dualism as it developed in the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, especially as set out in the Upanishads and popularised by Adi Shankara in the 9th century has been influential on Hinduism.{{sfn|Indich|2000|page=vii}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=240-243}}{{sfn|Brannigan|2009|page=19, Quote: "Advaita Vedanta is the most influential philosophical system in Hindu thought."}}

The Dvaita tradition founded by 13th/14th-century Madhvacharya is based on a concept similar to God in other major world religions.^[13]{{Sfn|Sharma|1962|p=7}} His writings led some early colonial-era Indologists such as George Abraham Grierson to suggest Madhvacharya was influenced by Christianity,^[14] but later scholarship has rejected this theory.{{Sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=266}}{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|pp=19-21}} Madhva's historical influence in Hinduism, state Kulandran and Kraemer, has been salutary, but not extensive.^[14]

Henotheism, kathenotheism, equitheism and non-theism

The idea that there can be and are plural perspectives for the same divine or spiritual principle repeats in the Vedic texts. For example, other than hymn 1.164 with this teaching,^[15] the more ancient hymn 5.3 of the Rigveda states:

Related terms to henotheism are monolatrism and kathenotheism.^[28] The latter term is an extension of "henotheism", from {{lang|grc|καθ' ἕνα θεόν}} (kath' hena theon) — "one god at a time".^[22] Henotheism refers to a pluralistic theology wherein different deities are viewed to be of a unitary, equivalent divine essence.^[23] Some scholars prefer the term monolatry to henotheism, to discuss religions where a single god is central, but the existence or the position of other gods is not denied.^[24]^[25] Another term related to henotheism is "equitheism", referring to the belief that all gods are equal.^[26]

The Vedic era conceptualization of the divine or the One, states Jeaneane Fowler, is more abstract than a monotheistic God, it is the Reality behind and of the phenomenal universe.^[37] The Vedic hymns treat it as "limitless, indescribable, absolute principle", thus the Vedic divine is something of a panentheism rather than simple henotheism.^[37] In late Vedic era, around the start of Upanishadic age (c. 800 BCE), theosophical speculations emerge that develop concepts which scholars variously call nondualism or monism, as well as forms of non-theism and pantheism.^[30]^[31]^[32] An example of the questioning of the concept of God, in addition to henotheistic hymns found therein, are in later portions of the Rigveda, such as the Nasadiya Sukta.^[33] Hinduism calls the metaphysical absolute concept as Brahman, incorporating within it the transcendent and immanent reality.^[34]^[35]^[36] Different schools of thought interpret Brahman as either personal, impersonal or transpersonal. Ishwar Chandra Sharma describes it as "Absolute Reality, beyond all dualities of existence and non-existence, light and darkness, and of time, space and cause".^[37]

Influential ancient and medieval Hindu philosophers, states philosophy professor Roy Perrett, teach their spiritual ideas with a world created ex nihilo and "effectively manage without God altogether".^[38]

Brahman

In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality in the universe.^[39]^[40]{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49–55 (in Upanishads), 318–319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246–248 and 252–255 (in Advaita), 342–343 (in Dvaita), 175–176 (in Samkhya-Yoga)}} In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists.^[40]^[41]^[42] It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.^[39]{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=53–55}}^[43] Brahman as a metaphysical concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe.^[39]{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=50–53}}

Brahman is a Vedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world".^[44] Brahman is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads.^[45] The Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle.^[46] In the Upanishads, it has been variously described as Sat-cit-ānanda (truth-consciousness-bliss){{sfn|Raju|1992|p=228}}^[47] and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality.{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=53–55}}{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}}{{refn|group=note|"not sublatable",{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}} the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated (German: "aufheben").}}{{refn|group=note|It is also defined as:

Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of Atman (Soul, Self),^[45]{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49–53}} personal,{{refn|group=note|Saguna Brahman, with qualities}} impersonal{{refn|group=note|Nirguna Brahman, without qualities}} or Para Brahman,{{refn|group=note|Supreme}} or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school.^[50] In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman (soul) in each being, and therein it shares conceptual framework of God in major world religions.^[42]^[51]^[52] In non-dual schools of Hinduism such as the monist Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is identical to the Atman, Brahman is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.^[43]^[53]^[54]

The Upanishads contain several mahā-vākyas or "Great Sayings" on the concept of Brahman:^[55]

Nirguna and Saguna

While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of Brahman and Atman, they also expound on Brahman as saguna Brahman—the Brahman with attributes, and nirguna Brahman—the Brahman without attributes.^[63] The nirguna Brahman is the Brahman as it really is, however, the saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing nirguna Brahman, but the Hinduism schools declare saguna Brahman to be ultimately illusory.^[79] The concept of the saguna Brahman, such as in the form of avatars, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.^[64]

The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman—Nirguna and Saguna.^[65] Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.^[66] Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.^[66] The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita.^[65]^[67] It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives: one from Nirguni knowledge-focus and other from Saguni love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita.^[67] Nirguna bhakta's poetry were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge.^[65] Saguna bhakta's poetry were Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love.^[65] In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.^[67]

Ishvara

The Yogasutras of Patanjali use the term Ishvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is Isvara? These commentaries range from defining Isvara from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".^[69]^[70] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".^[71]

Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)",^[72]

This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism adds the characteristics of Isvara as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, klesha), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, karma), one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).^[73]^[74]

Among various Bhakti path practicing sects of Hinduism, which built upon the Yoga school of Hinduism, Isvara can also mean a specific deity such as Krishna, Rama, Shiva, Lakshmi, Parvati and others.^[75]

Madhvacharya's monotheistic God

Madhvacharya was misperceived and misrepresented by both Christian missionaries and Hindu writers during the colonial era scholarship.{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|pp=19-25}}{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=609-611}} The similarities in the primacy of one God, dualism and distinction between man and God, devotion to God, the son of God as the intermediary, predestination, the role of grace in salvation, as well as the similarities in the legends of miracles in Christianity and Madhvacharya's Dvaita tradition fed these stories.{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|pp=19-25}}{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=609-611}} Among Christian writers, G. A. Grierson creatively asserted that Madhva's ideas evidently were "borrowed from Christianity, quite possibly promulgated as a rival to the central doctrine of that faith".{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|p=20}} Among Hindu writers, according to Sarma, S. C. Vasu creatively translated Madhvacharya's works to identify Madhvacharya with Christ, rather than compare their ideas.{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|pp=22-24}}

Modern scholarship rules out the influence of Christianity on Madhvacharya,^[14]{{Sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=266}} as there is no evidence that there ever was a Christian settlement where Madhvacharya grew up and lived, or that there was a sharing or discussion of ideas between someone with knowledge of the Bible and Christian myths, and him.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=609-611}}

Svayam Bhagavan

Svayam Bhagavan, a Sanskrit theological term, is the concept of absolute representation of the monotheistic God as Bhagavan himself within Hinduism.{{citation needed|date=January 2015}}

It is most often used in Gaudiya Vaishnava Krishna-centered theology as referring to Krishna. The title Svayam Bhagavan is used exclusively to designate Krishna.^[77] Certain other traditions of Hinduism consider him to be the source of all avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself, or to be the same as Narayana. As such, he is therefore regarded as Svayam Bhagavan.^[78]^[79]^[106]

The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the Bhagavata Purana, and also within other sects of Vaishnavism.

When Krishna is recognized to be Svayam Bhagavan, it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaishnavism,^[80] the Vallabha Sampradaya,^[81] and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily "from the famous statement of the Bhagavatam"(1.3.28).^[82]

A different viewpoint, opposing this theological concept is the concept of Krishna as an avatar of Narayana or Vishnu. It should be however noted that although it is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of god of Vaishnavism, who is also known as Narayana, Vasudeva and Krishna and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaishnavism.^[83]

The theological interpretation of {{IAST|Svayam Bhagavān}} differs with each tradition and the literal translation of the term has been understood in several distinct ways. Translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "Bhagavan Himself" or "directly Bhagavan".^[84] Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as primeval Lord or original Personality of Godhead, but also considers the terms such as Supreme Personality of Godhead and Supreme God as an equivalent to the term Svayam Bhagavan, and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayana and many of their associated Avatars.^[85]^[86]

Earlier commentators such as Madhvacharya translated the term Svayam Bhagavan as "he who has bhagavatta"; meaning "he who has the quality of possessing all good qualities".^[87] Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".^[88] Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaishnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all Avatars and is considered to be the "paripurna Avatara", complete in all respects and the same as the original.^[89] According to them Krishna is described in the Bhagavata Purana as the Purnavatara (or complete manifestation) of the Bhagavan, while other incarnations are called partial.

See also

Notes

1. ^¹Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-45677-7}}, page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."
2. ^Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, {{ISBN|978-0123695031}}, Academic Press, 2008
3. ^MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
4. ^{{Citation | last = Chakravarti| first = Sitansu| title = Hinduism, a way of life| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publ.| year = 1991| page = 71| url = https://books.google.com/?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71| isbn = 978-81-208-0899-7}}
5. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism |title=Polytheism|accessdate= 2007-07-05 |year=2007 |work= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}
6. ^June McDaniel Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52-53 {{ISBN|0-19-517021-0}}
7. ^Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, pages 3-4, 15-28
8. ^Mariasusai Dhavamony (1999), Hindu Spirituality, GB Press, {{ISBN|978-8876528187}}, page 129
9. ^Ganesh Tagare (2002), The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120818927}}, pages 16–19
10. ^William Wainwright (2012), Concepts of God, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University
11. ^U Murthy (1979), Samskara, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195610796}}, page 150
12. ^Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791410806}}, page 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";
Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-1592578467}}, pages 208-210
13. ^Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 124-127
14. ^¹²³Sabapathy Kulandran and Hendrik Kraemer (2004), Grace in Christianity and Hinduism, James Clarke, {{ISBN|978-0227172360}}, pages 177-179
15. ^¹{{cite book|author=Klaus K. Klostermaier|title=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC |year=2010|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3|pages=103 with footnote 10 on page 529}}
16. ^See also, Griffith's Rigveda translation: [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_164 Wikisource]
17. ^Sugirtharajah, Sharada, Imagining Hinduism: A Postcolonial Perspective, Routledge, 2004, p.44;
18. ^{{cite book|author=William A. Graham |title=Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XzYX0T-ZqTcC |year=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-44820-8 |pages=70–71 }}
19. ^{{cite book|author1=Ilai Alon |author2= Ithamar Gruenwald|author3=Itamar Singer |title= Concepts of the Other in Near Eastern Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A1-l66daLgYC|date=1994 |publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-9004102200 |pages=370–371 }}
20. ^{{cite book|author=Hermann Oldenberg|title=The Religion of the Veda|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=uKeubCiBOPQC |year= 1988|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0392-3|page=51}}
21. ^See also, Griffith's translation of this hymn: [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_5/Hymn_3 Wikisource]
22. ^Online Etymology Dictionary: kathenotheism
23. ^¹²{{cite book|author1=Charles Taliaferro |author2=Victoria S. Harrison |author3=Stewart Goetz |title=The Routledge Companion to Theism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ct7fCgAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-33823-6 |pages=78–79 }}
24. ^¹Monotheism and [https://www.britannica.com/topic/polytheism Polytheism], Encyclopædia Britannica (2014)
25. ^¹{{cite book|author = Christoph Elsas|editor=Erwin Fahlbusch |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yaecVMhMWaEC |year=1999|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-90-04-11695-5 |pages=524 }}
26. ^{{cite book|author=Carl Olson |title=The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RVWKClYq4TUC |date=2007 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-4068-9|pages=8–9}}
27. ^{{cite book|author=Kenneth Kramer|title=World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzUAu-43W5oC&pg=PA34|date=January 1986|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-2781-8|pages=34–}}
28. ^{{cite book|author=David Christian|title=Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA18|date=1 September 2011|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-95067-2|pages=18–}}
29. ^{{cite book|author=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA206|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|pages=206–}}
30. ^¹²{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler |title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C |year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-93-6 |pages=43–44 }}
31. ^{{cite book|author=James L. Ford |title=The Divine Quest, East and West: A Comparative Study of Ultimate Realities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tk14CwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1-4384-6055-0 |pages=308–309 }}
32. ^{{cite book|author=Ninian Smart|title=The Yogi and the Devotee (Routledge Revivals): The Interplay Between the Upanishads and Catholic Theology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yHE2aL8735AC |year=2013|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-62933-4 |pages=46–47, 117 }}
33. ^{{cite book|author=Jessica Frazier |editor=Russell Re Manning|title= The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eFGYYtfBGFYC |year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-161171-1 |pages=172–173 }}
34. ^PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1406732627}}, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII
35. ^{{cite book|author=Jeffrey Brodd|title=World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hPiv0w6BDSQC|year=2003|publisher=Saint Mary's Press|isbn=978-0-88489-725-5|pages=43–45}}
36. ^Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 91
37. ^Ishwar Chandra Sharma, Ethical Philosophies of India, Harper & Row, 1970, p.75.
38. ^{{cite book|author=Roy W. Perrett|title=Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=edhYAQAAQBAJ |year= 2013|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 978-1-135-70322-6|pages= xiii–xiv}}
39. ^¹²{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism|last=Lochtefeld|first=James G.|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|year=2002|isbn=978-0823931798|volume=1|location=|pages=122|quote=|via=}}
40. ^¹P. T. Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1406732627}}, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII
41. ^Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, Rodopi Press, {{ISBN|978-9042015104}}, pages 43–44
42. ^¹For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199738724}}, pages 51–58, 111–115;
For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35
43. ^¹{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOM3XgY1ITMC|title=World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery|last=Brodd|first=Jeffrey|publisher=Saint Mary's Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0884899976|edition=3rd|location=|pages=43–47|quote=|via=}}
44. ^ Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 91
45. ^¹Stephen Philips (1998), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415187077}}, pages 1–4
46. ^{{Cite book|title=Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism|last=Goodman|first=Hananya|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0791417164|location=|pages=121|quote=|via=}}
47. ^Eliot Deutsch (1980), Advaita Vedanta : A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0824802714}}, Chapter 1
48. ^{{cite book | last = Brodd | first = Jeffrey | authorlink = | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | year = 2003 | location = Winona, Minnesota | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}
49. ^John Bowker (ed.)(2012), The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press.
50. ^Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791470824}}, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman – Self and All
51. ^Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 124–127
52. ^Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110342550}}, pages 155–157
53. ^Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820272}}, pages 19–40, 53–58, 79–86
54. ^John E. Welshons (2009), One Soul, One Love, One Heart, New World Library, {{ISBN|978-1577315889}}, pages 17–18
55. ^{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=978-0816073368|pages=270}}
56. ^Sanskrit and English Translation: S. Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n171/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 1.4.10, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Shankara Bhashya, page 145
57. ^Sanskrit and English Translation: S. Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n737/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 4.4.5, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Shankara Bhashya, pages 711–712
58. ^Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_२ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.१ ॥तृतीयॊऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource
English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1] Oxford University Press, page 48;
Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii–xix
59. ^Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource
English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/92/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1] Oxford University Press, page 93;
Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii–xix
60. ^Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource
English Translation:Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n267/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad] 6.8, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 246–250
61. ^A. S. Gupta, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397392 The Meanings of "That Thou Art"], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 12, No. 2, pages 125–134
62. ^Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऐतरेयोपनिषद् ऐतरेयोपनिषद्] Wikisource
English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/246/mode/2up Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7, also known as Aitareya Aranyaka 2.6.1.7] Oxford University Press, page 246
63. ^Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [https://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies {{sic|hide=y}} in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1–6
64. ^¹William Wainwright (2012), Concepts of God, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: June 13, 2015)
65. ^¹²³⁴Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, page 21
66. ^¹Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, pages xxvii–xxxiv
67. ^¹²Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, pages 207–211
68. ^¹David Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791428054}}, page 2
69. ^Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pages 38-39
70. ^Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aphorisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93; Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126-129
71. ^Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-3815-2}}, page 86
72. ^{{cite book|last1=Āgāśe|first1=K. S.|title=Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi|date=1904|publisher=Ānandāśrama|location=Puṇe|page=102|url=https://archive.org/stream/patanjaliyoga/yoga_sutras_three_commentaries#page/n113/mode/2up}}
73. ^aparAmRSTa, kleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya; Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
74. ^Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pages 31-45
75. ^Bryant, Edwin H. (2003). Krishna: the beautiful legend of God; Śrīmad Bhāgavata Purāṇa, book X, XI. Harmondsworth [Eng.]: Penguin. {{ISBN|0-14-044799-7}}
76. ^Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 124-127
77. ^(Gupta 2007, p.36 note 9)
78. ^{{cite book|author = Delmonico, N.|year = 2004|title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism|journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant|url = https://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism|accessdate = 2008-04-12|isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6}}
79. ^{{cite book|author = Elkman, S.M.|author2=Gosvami, J.|year = 1986|title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub|isbn =}}
80. ^{{cite book|author = Kennedy, M.T.|year = 1925|title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal|publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press|isbn =}}
81. ^{{cite book|author = Flood, Gavin D.|authorlink = Gavin Flood|title = An introduction to Hinduism|publisher = Cambridge University Press|location = Cambridge, UK|year = 1996|isbn = 978-0-521-43878-0|url = https://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood|accessdate = 2008-04-21|page = 341}}"Early Vaishnava worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagavatas, while Narayana was worshipped by the Pancaratra sect."
82. ^Essential Hinduism S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [https://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] {{ISBN|0-275-99006-0}}
83. ^{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}
84. ^{{cite book|author = Gupta, Ravi M.|year = 2007|title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami|publisher = Routledge|isbn = 978-0-415-40548-5}}
85. ^{{cite book|author = Knapp, S.|year = 2005|title = The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -|publisher = iUniverse|isbn =}} "Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies." [https://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]
86. ^{{cite journal|author = Dr. Kim Knott|year = 1993|title = Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions|url = http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html|accessdate = 2008-04-12}}..."Bhakti, the highest path, was that of surrender to Lord Krishna, the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".
87. ^¹{{cite book|author = Dimock Jr, E.C.|author2=Dimock, E.C.|year = 1989|title = The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal|publisher = University Of Chicago Press|isbn =}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]
88. ^{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier | authorlink = Klaus Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972–1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |isbn=978-90-04-07863-5 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself.|url= https://books.google.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan |accessdate= |page=206 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"
89. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm |title = Sapthagiri |publisher = www.tirumala.org |accessdate = 2008-05-03 |last = |first = |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081121103726/http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm |archivedate = 21 November 2008 |df = dmy-all}}Parashara Maharishi, Vyasa's father had devoted the largest Amsa (part) in Vishnu Purana to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the Paripoorna Avatara. And according to Lord Krishna's own (instructions) upadesha, "he who knows (the secrets of) His (Krishna's) Janma (birth) and Karma (actions) will not remain in samsara (punar janma naiti- maam eti) and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil." (BG 4.9). Parasara Maharishi ends up Amsa 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (Vishnu Purana .5.38.94)