| 词条 | Hard and soft C |
| 释义 |
In the Latin-based orthographies of many European languages (including English), a distinction between hard and soft {{angle bracket|c}} occurs in which {{angle bracket|c}} represents two distinct phonemes. The sound of a hard {{angle bracket|c}} (which often precedes the non-front vowels {{angle bracket|a}}, {{angle bracket|o}} and {{angle bracket|u}}) is that of the voiceless velar stop, {{IPA|[k]}} (as in car) while the sound of a soft {{angle bracket|c}} (typically before {{angle bracket|e}}, {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|y}}), depending on language, may be a fricative or affricate. In English, the sound of soft {{angle bracket|c}} is {{IPA|/s/}} (as in "citrus"). There was no soft {{angle bracket|c}} in classical Latin, where it was always pronounced as {{IPA|/k/}}. Modern English pronunciation of early Latin often uses {{IPA|/s/}} instead, as with Caesar ({{IPA-la|kae.sar}}) becoming {{IPAc-en|'|s|i:|z|@r}}.[1] HistoryThis alternation has its origins in a historical palatalization of {{IPA|/k/}} which took place in Late Latin, and led to a change in the pronunciation of the sound {{IPA|[k]}} before the front vowels {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[i]}}.[2][3] Later, other languages not descended from Latin, such as English, inherited this feature as an orthographic convention. EnglishGeneral overviewIn English orthography, the pronunciation of hard {{angle bracket|c}} is {{IPA|/k/}} and of soft {{angle bracket|c}} is {{IPA|/s/}}. Yod-coalescence has altered instances of {{IPA|/sj/}} particularly in unstressed syllables to {{IPA|/ʃ/}} in most varieties of English affecting words such as ocean, logician and magician. Generally, the soft {{angle bracket|c}} pronunciation occurs before {{angle bracket|i e y}}; it also occurs before {{angle bracket|ae}} and {{angle bracket|oe}} in a number of Greek and Latin loanwords (such as coelacanth, caecum, caesar). The hard {{angle bracket|c}} pronunciation occurs everywhere else[4] except in the letter combinations {{angle bracket|sc}}, {{angle bracket|ch}}, and {{angle bracket|sch}} which have distinct pronunciation rules. Double {{angle bracket|cc}} generally represents {{IPA|/ks/}} before {{angle bracket|i e y}}, as in accident, succeed, and coccyx. There are exceptions to the general rules of hard and soft {{angle bracket|c}}:
A silent {{angle bracket|e}} can occur after {{angle bracket|c}} at the end of a word or component root word part of a larger word. The {{angle bracket|e}} can serve a marking function indicating that the preceding {{angle bracket|c}} is soft as in dance and enhancement. The silent {{angle bracket|e}} often additionally indicates that the vowel before {{angle bracket|c}} is a long vowel, as in rice, mace, and pacesetter. When adding suffixes with {{angle bracket|i e y}} (such as -ed, -ing, -er, -est, -ism, -ist, -y, and -ie) to root words ending in {{angle bracket|ce}}, the final {{angle bracket|e}} of the root word is often dropped and the root word retains the soft {{angle bracket|c}} pronunciation as in danced, dancing, and dancer from dance . The suffixes -ify and -ise/-ize can be added to most nouns and adjectives to form new verbs. The pronunciation of {{angle bracket|c}} in newly coined words using these suffixes is not always clear. The digraph {{angle bracket|ck}} may be used to retain the hard {{angle bracket|c}} pronunciation in inflections and derivatives of a word such as trafficking from the verb traffic. There are several cases in English in which hard and soft {{angle bracket|c}} alternate with the addition of suffixes as in critic/criticism and electric/electricity (electrician has a soft {{angle bracket|c}} pronunciation of {{IPA|/ʃ/}} because of yod-coalescence). Letter combinationsA number of two-letter combinations or digraphs follow distinct pronunciation patterns and don't follow the hard/soft distinction of {{angle bracket|c}}. For example, {{angle bracket|ch}} may represent {{IPA|/tʃ/}} (as in chicken), {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (as in chef), or {{IPA|/k/|}} (as in choir). Other letter combinations that don't follow the paradigm include {{angle bracket|cz}}, {{angle bracket|sc}}, {{angle bracket|cs}}, {{angle bracket|tch}}, {{angle bracket|sch}}, and {{angle bracket|tsch}}. These come primarily from loanwords. Besides a few examples (recce, soccer, Speccy), {{angle bracket|cc}} fits neatly with the regular rules of {{angle bracket|c}}: Before {{angle bracket|i e y}}, the second {{angle bracket|c}} is soft while the first is hard. Words such as accept and success are pronounced with {{IPA|/ks/}} and words such as succumb and accommodate are pronounced with {{IPA|/k/}}. Exceptions include loanwords from Italian such as cappuccino with {{IPA|/tʃ/}} for {{angle bracket|cc}}. Many placenames and other proper nouns with -cester (from Old English ceaster, meaning Roman station or walled town) are pronounced with {{IPA|/stər/}} such as Worcester ({{IPA|/ˈwʊstər/}}), Gloucester ({{IPA|/ˈɡlɒstər/}} or {{IPA|/ˈɡlɔːstər/}}), and Leicester ({{IPA|/ˈlɛstər/}}). The {{IPA|/s/}} pronunciation occurs as a combination of a historically soft {{angle bracket|c}} pronunciation and historical elision of the first vowel of the suffix. Italian loanwordsThe original spellings and pronunciations of Italian loanwords have mostly been kept. Many English words that have been borrowed from Italian follow a distinct set of pronunciation rules corresponding to those in Italian. The Italian soft {{angle bracket|c}} pronunciation is {{IPA|/tʃ/}} (as in cello and ciao), while the hard {{angle bracket|c}} is the same as in English. Italian orthography uses {{angle bracket|ch}} to indicate a hard pronunciation before {{angle bracket|e}} or {{angle bracket|i}}, analogous to English using {{angle bracket|k}} (as in kill and keep) and {{angle bracket|qu}} (as in mosquito and queue). In addition to hard and soft {{angle bracket|c}}, the digraph {{angle bracket|sc}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} when followed by {{angle bracket|e}} or {{angle bracket|i}} (as in crescendo and fascia). Meanwhile, {{angle bracket|sch}} in Italian represents {{IPA|/sk/}}, not {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, but English-speakers commonly mispronounce it as {{IPA|/ʃ/}} due to familiarity with the German pronunciation. Italian uses {{angle bracket|cc}} to indicate the gemination of {{IPA|/kk/}} before {{angle bracket|a}}, {{angle bracket|o}}, {{angle bracket|u}} or {{IPA|/ttʃ/}} before {{angle bracket|e}} or {{angle bracket|i}}. English does not usually geminate consonants and therefore loanwords with soft {{angle bracket|cc}} are pronounced with {{IPA|/tʃ/}} as with cappuccino, pronounced {{IPA|/ˌkæpəˈtʃinoʊ/}}. Suffixation issuesRarely, the use of unusual suffixed forms to create neologisms occurs. For example, the words sac and bloc are both standard words but adding -iness or -ism (both productive affixes in English) would create spellings that seem to indicate soft {{angle bracket|c}} pronunciations. (saciness and blocism). Potential remedies include altering the spelling to sackiness and blockism, though no standard conventions exist. Use of {{angle bracket|k}}Sometimes {{angle bracket|k}} replaces {{angle bracket|c}}, {{angle bracket|ck}}, or {{angle bracket|qu}}, as a trope for giving words a hard-edged or whimsical feel. Examples include the Mortal Kombat franchise and product names such as Kool-Aid and Nesquik. More intensely, this use of {{angle bracket|k}} has also been used to give extremist or racist connotations. Examples include Amerika or Amerikkka (where the {{angle bracket|k}} is reminiscent of German and the totalitarian Nazi regime as well as the racist Ku Klux Klan). Other languagesAll modern Romance languages make the hard/soft distinction with {{angle bracket|c}},[2] except a few that have undergone spelling reforms such as Ladino. Some non-Romance languages like German, Danish and Dutch use {{angle bracket|c}} in loanwords and also make this distinction.[5] The soft {{angle bracket|c}} pronunciation, which occurs before {{angle bracket|i}}, {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|y}},[6] is:
The hard {{angle bracket|c}} occurs in all other positions and represents {{IPA|/k/}} in all these aforementioned languages. A number of orthographies do not make a hard/soft distinction. The {{angle bracket|c}} is always hard in Welsh, Irish, and Scottish Gaelic, but is always soft in Slavic languages, Hungarian, and in and the Hanyu Pinyin transcription system of Mandarin Chinese, where it represents {{IPA|/ts/}} or {{IPA|/tsʰ/}} and in Indonesian and many of the transcriptions of the languages of India such as Sanskrit and Hindi, where it always represents {{IPA|/tʃ/}}. In Italian[7] and Romanian,[10] the orthographic convention for representing {{IPA|/k/}} before front vowels is to add {{angle bracket|h}} (Italian chiaro, {{IPA-it|ˈkjaːro|}} 'clear'). {{angle bracket|qu}} is used to accomplish the same purpose in Catalan,[9] Portuguese,[8] Spanish,[2] and French. In French,[11] Catalan,[9] Portuguese,[8] and Old Spanish a cedilla is used to indicate a soft {{IPA|/s/}} pronunciation when it would otherwise seem to be hard. (French garçon, {{IPA-fr|ɡaʁˈsɔ̃|}}, 'boy'; Portuguese coração, {{IPA-pt|koɾaˈsɐ̃w̃|}}, 'heart'; Catalan caçar, {{IPA-ca|kəˈsa|}}, 'to hunt'). Spanish is similar, though {{angle bracket|z}} is used instead of {{angle bracket|ç}} (e.g. corazón {{IPA-es|koɾaˈθon|}} 'heart').[2] Swedish has a similar phenomenon with hard and soft {{angle bracket|k}}: this results from a similar historical palatalization development. Soft {{angle bracket|k}} is typically a palatal {{IPA|[ç]}} or an alveolo-palatal {{IPA|[ɕ]}}, and occurs before not only {{angle bracket|i}}, {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|y}}, but also {{angle bracket|j}}, {{angle bracket|ä}}, and {{angle bracket|ö}}. Another similar system with hard and soft {{angle bracket|k}} is found in Faroese with the hard {{angle bracket|k}} being {{IPA|/kʰ/}} and the soft being {{IPA|/t͡ʃʰ/}}, and Turkish where the soft {{angle bracket|k}} is {{IPA|/c/}}. The Vietnamese alphabet does not have a hard or a soft {{angle bracket|c}} per se. However, since it was inherited from European languages, the letter {{angle bracket|c}} never occurs in "soft positions", i.e. before {{angle bracket|e}}, {{angle bracket|ê}} and {{angle bracket|i}} where {{angle bracket|k}} is used instead, while {{angle bracket|k}} never occurs elsewhere except in the digraph {{angle bracket|kh}} and a few loanwords. Hồ Chí Minh had proposed a simplified spelling, as shown in the title of one of his books, Đường kách mệnh. See also
Notes1. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.covingtoninnovations.com/mc/latinpro.pdf |website=www.covingtoninnovations.com}} 2. ^1 2 3 {{Harvcoltxt|Arnaud|1945|p=38}} 3. ^1 2 3 {{Harvcoltxt|Emerson|1997|p=261}} 4. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Emerson|1997|p=266}} 5. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Venezky|1970|p=260}} 6. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Arnaud|1945|p=37}} 7. ^1 {{Harvcoltxt|Hall|1944|p=82}} 8. ^1 2 {{Harvcoltxt|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|p=7}} 9. ^1 2 {{Harvcoltxt|Wheeler|1979|p=7}} 10. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Venezky|1970|p=261}} 11. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Tranel|1987|p=12}} References
|doi=10.2307/318102 |last=Arnaud |first=Leonard E. |year=1945 |title=Teaching the Pronunciation of "C" and "G" and the Spanish Diphthongs |journal=The Modern Language Journal |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=37–39 |jstor=318102 }}
|doi=10.2307/455654 |last=Emerson |first=Ralph H. |year=1997 |title=English Spelling and Its Relation to Sound |journal=American Speech |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=260–288 |jstor=455654 }}
|doi=10.2307/475860 |last=Hall |first=Robert, Jr. |year=1944 |title=Italian Phonemes and Orthography |journal=Italica |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=72–82 |jstor=475860 }}
|last=Mateus |first=Maria Helena |last2=d'Andrade |first2=Ernesto |year= 2000 |title=The Phonology of Portuguese |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-823581-X }}
|last=Tranel |first=Bernard |year=1987 |title=The sounds of French |publisher=Cambridge university press }}
|last=Venezky |first=Richard L. |year=1970 |title=Principles for the Design of Practical Writing Systems |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=12 |issue=7 |pages=256–270 }}
|last=Wheeler |first=Max W |year=1979 |title=Phonology Of Catalan |place=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell }}{{DEFAULTSORT:C - Hard And Soft}} 3 : Consonants|Spelling|English spelling |
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