| 词条 | Hawaiian grammar | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 释义 |
This article summarizes grammar in the Hawaiian language. SyntaxHawaiian is a predominantly verb–subject–object language. However, word order is flexible, and the emphatic word can be placed first in the sentence.[1]{{rp|p28}} Hawaiian largely avoids subordinate clauses,[1]{{rp|p.27}} and often uses a possessive construction instead.[1]{{rp|p.41}} Hawaiian, like English, is a non-pro-drop language. Nonetheless, there is an exception with commands, where the use of subject pronouns is optional. In these cases, the subject pronoun is seldom used if the context deems it unnecessary, as in e hele i ke kula "[imperfective] go to the school", "go to school"; here, the subject "you" is understood, and can be omitted. The typical detailed word order is given by the following,[1]{{rp|p.19}} with most items optional: (a) Tense/aspect signs: i, ua, e, etc. (b) Verb (c) Qualifying adverb: mau, wale, ole, pu, etc. (d) Passive sign: 'ia (e) Verbal directives: aku, mai, etc. (f) Locatives nei or lā, or particles ana or ai (g) Strengthening particle: no (h) Subject (i) Object or predicate noun Exceptions to VSO word orderIf the sentence has a negative mood and the subject is a pronoun, word order is subject–verb–object following the negator ʻaʻole, as in:
Another exception is when an emphatic adverbial phrase begins the sentence. In this case, a pronoun subject precedes the verb.[1]{{rp|p.29}} InterrogativesYes-no questions can be unmarked and expressed by intonation,[6]{{rp|p.32}} or they can be marked by placing anei after the leading word of the sentence.[1]{{rp|p.23}} Examples of question-word questions include:
See also Hawaiian Language: Syntax and other resources. NounsA verb can be nominalized by preceding it with the definite article.[1]{{rp|p.37}} Within the noun phrase, adjectives follow the noun (e.g. ka hale li{{okina}}ili{{okina}}i "the house small", "the small house"), while possessors precede it (e.g. kou hale "your house"). Numerals precede the noun in the absence of the definite article, but follow the noun if the noun is preceded by the definite article.[1]{{rp|p.31}} GenderIn Hawaiian, there is no gender distinction based on biological sex. The word for third person (he, she, it) is ia. It is commonly preceded by {{okina}}o as in {{okina}}o ia but should always be written as two words, never as one. Hawaiian nouns belong to one of two genders, known as the kino ʻō (o-class) and the kino ʻā (a-class). These classes are only taken into account when using the genitive case (see table of personal pronouns below). Kino ʻō nouns, in general, are nouns whose creation cannot be controlled by the subject, such as inoa "name", pu{{okina}}uwai "heart", and hale "house". Specific categories for o-class nouns include: modes of transportation (e.g. ka{{okina}}a "car" and lio "horse"), things that you can go into, sit on or wear (e.g., lumi "room", noho "chair", {{okina}}eke "bag", and lole "clothes"), and people in your generation (e.g., siblings, cousins) and previous generations (e.g. makuahine "mother"). Kino ʻā nouns, in general, are those whose creation can be controlled, such as waiho{{okina}}olu{{okina}}u "color", as in ka{{okina}}u waiho{{okina}}olu{{okina}}u punahele "my favorite color". Specific categories include: your boyfriend or girlfriend (ipo), spouse, friends, and future generations in your line (all of your descendants). The change of preposition of o "of" (kino ʻō) to a "of "(kino ʻā) is especially important for prepositional and subordinate phrases: ka mea "the thing" kona mea "his thing (nonspecific)" kāna mea "his thing (which he created or somehow chose)" ka mea āna i ʻike ai "the thing that he saw" kāna (mea) i ʻike ai "what he saw" kēia ʻike ʻana āna "this thing that he saw (purposefully)" kēia ʻike ʻana ona "this thing that he saw (purportedly)" where the seeing isn't much import Demonstrative determiners
Personal pronouns
VerbsTense, aspect, and moodVerbs can be analytically modified to indicate tense, aspect and mood as follows:[1]{{rp|p.19}}
In his "Introduction to Hawaiian Grammar," W.D. Alexander[1] proposed that Hawaiian has a pluperfect tense as follows:
However, this is debatable since ʻē simply means "beforehand, in advance, already".[2] Andrews [Gram. 1.4] suggested the same thing that Alexander forwards. However, Ua hana ʻē au could mean both "I have already worked", "I already worked", and (depending on the temporal context) "I had worked previous to that moment." "Already" is the operative unifier for these constructions as well as the perfective quality denoted by ua. ʻĒ therefore is acting like a regular Hawaiian adverb, following the verb it modifies: Ua hana paha au. Perhaps I worked. Ua hana mālie au. I worked steadily, without disruption. Ua hana naʻe au. I even worked. Equative sentencesHawaiian does not have a copula verb meaning "to be" nor does it have a verb meaning "to have". Equative sentences are used to convey this group of ideas. All equative sentences in Hawaiian are zero-tense/mood (i.e., they cannot be modified by verbal markers, particles or adverbs). Pepeke ʻAike He "A is a B"Pepeke ʻAike He is the name for the simple equative sentence "A is a(n) B". The pattern is "He B (ʻo) A." ʻO marks the third person singular pronoun ia (which means "he/she/it") and all proper nouns. He kaikamahine ʻo Mary. Mary is a girl. He kaikamahine ʻo ia. She is a girl. He Hawaiʻi kēlā kaikamahine. That girl is (a) Hawaiian. He haumana ke keiki. The child is a student. Pepeke ʻAike ʻOPepeke ʻAike ʻO is the name for the simple equative sentence "A is B." The pattern is " ʻO A (ʻo) B," where the order of the nouns is interchangeable and where ʻo invariably marks the third person singular pronoun ia and all proper nouns (regardless of where it is in the utterance). ʻO Mary ʻo ia. ʻOia ʻo Mary. She is Mary. ʻO Mary nō ia. ʻOia nō ʻo Mary. It's Mary. ʻO wau ʻo Mary. ʻO Mary wau. I'm Mary. ʻO ʻoe ʻo Mary. ʻO Mary ʻoe. You are Mary. ʻO Mary ke kaikamahine. ʻO ke kaikamahine ʻo Mary. Mary is the girl. The girl is Mary. ʻO ka haumana ke keiki. ʻO ke keiki ka haumana. The student is the child. The child is the student. Pepeke Henua (Locational equative)Pepeke Henua is the name for the simple equative sentence "A is located (in/on/at/etc. B)." The pattern is "Aia (ʻo) A..." Aia ʻo Mary ma Hilo. Mary is in Hilo. Aia ʻo ia maloko o ka wai. He/she/it is inside (of) the water. Aia ka haumana mahea? Aia mahea ka haumana? Where is the student? Pepeke ʻAike NaPepeke ʻAike Na is the name of the simple equative sentence "A belongs to B." The pattern is "Na (B) A." The singular pronouns undergo predictable changes.
Pepeke ʻAike Na Examples: Naʻu ke kaʻa. The car belongs to me. That's my car. Na Mary ke keiki. The child is Mary's. It's Mary's child. Nāna ka penikala. The pencil belongs to him/her/it. Nāu nō au. I belong to you. I'm yours. Note:ʻO kēia ke kaʻa nāu. This is the car I'm giving to you. He makana kēlā na ke aliʻi. This is a present for the chief. Other verbal particlesOther post-verbal markers include[3]{{rp|pp.228–231}}
Causative verb creationCausative verbs can be created from nouns and adjectives by using the prefix ho'o-, as illustrated in the following:[6]{{rp|p.24}}
ReduplicationReduplication[4]{{rp|p.23}} can emphasize or otherwise alter the meaning of a word. Examples are:
References1. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Alexander, W. D., Introduction to Hawaiian Grammar, Dover, 2004. {{Language grammars}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Hawaiian Grammar}}2. ^{{Cite web|url=http://wehewehe.org/gsdl2.85/cgi-bin/hdict?e=q-11000-00---off-0hdict--00-1----0-10-0---0---0direct-10-ED--4-------0-1lpm--11-haw-Zz-1---Zz-1-home-e--00-3-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-00-0utfZz-8-00&a=d&d=D1765|title=Nā Puke Wehewehe ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi|website=wehewehe.org|access-date=2016-05-28}} 3. ^New Pocket Hawaiian Dictionary, grammar section (pp. 225-243), U. of Hawaii Press, 1992. 4. ^1 2 Schütz, Albert J., All About Hawaiian, U. of Hawaii Press, 1995. 2 : Hawaiian language|Grammars of specific languages |
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