词条 | History of the Jews in Amsterdam |
释义 |
Marrano and Sephardic JewsPermanent Jewish life in Amsterdam began with the arrival of pockets of Marrano and Sephardic Jews at the end of the 16th, and beginning of the 17th century; their first Chief Rabbi was Rabbi Uri Levi. Many Sephardi (Jews from the Iberian Peninsula) had been expelled from Spain in 1492 after the fall of Muslim Granada. Those that moved to Portugal were forced to leave in 1497, where they were given the choice between conversion to Catholicism or death penalty on the grounds of heresy. From 1497, others remained in the Iberian peninsula, practising Judaism secretly in their homes. The newly independent Dutch provinces provided an ideal opportunity for these crypto-Jews to re-establish themselves and practise their religion openly, and they migrated, most notably to Amsterdam. Collectively, they brought economic growth and influence to the city as they established an international trading hub in Amsterdam during the 17th century, the so-called Dutch Golden Age. In 1593, Marrano Jews arrived in Amsterdam after having been refused admission to Middelburg and Haarlem. These Jews of Converso descent were important merchants, and persons of great ability. Their expertise, it can be stated, contributed materially to the prosperity of the Netherlands. They became strenuous supporters of the contender House of Orange, and were in return protected by the Stadholder. At this time, commerce in Holland was increasing; a period of development had arrived, particularly for Amsterdam, to which Jews had carried their goods and from which they maintained their relations with foreign lands. Quite new for the Netherlands, they also held connections with the Levant, Morocco and the Caribbean Antilles. The formal independence from Spain of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces (1581), theoretically opened the door to public practice of Judaism. Yet only in 1603 did a gathering take place that was licensed by the city. The three original congregations formed in the first two decades of the 17th century merged in 1639 to form a united Sephardic congregation. AshkenazimThe first Ashkenazim who arrived in Amsterdam were refugees from the Chmielnicki Uprising in Poland and the Thirty Years War. Their numbers soon swelled, eventually outnumbering the Sephardic Jews at the end of the 17th century; by 1674, some 5,000 Ashkenazi Jews were living in Amsterdam, while 2,500 Sephardic Jews called Amsterdam their home.[4] Many of the new Ashkenazi immigrants were poor, contrary to their relatively wealthy Sephardic co-religionists. They were only allowed in Amsterdam because of the financial aid promised to them and other guarantees given to the Amsterdam city council by the Sephardic community, despite the religious and cultural differences between the Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazim and the Portuguese-speaking Sephardim. Only in 1671 did the large Ashkenazi community inaugurate their own synagogue, the Great Synagogue,[5] which stood opposite to the Sephardic Esnoga Synagogue.[6] Soon after, several other synagogues were built, among them the Obbene Shul[7] (1685-1686), the Dritt Shul[8] (1700) and the Neie Shul[9] (1752, also known as the New Synagogue). For a long time, the Ashkenazi community was strongly focused on Central and Eastern Europe, the region where most of the Dutch Ashkenazi originated from. Rabbis, cantors and teachers hailed from Poland and Germany. Up until the 19th century, most of the Ashkenazi Jews spoke Yiddish, with some Dutch influences. Meanwhile, the community grew and flourished. At the end of the 18th century, the 20,000-strong Ashkenazi community was one of the largest in Western and Central Europe.[4] The Holocaust{{Main article|History of the Jews in the Netherlands#The Holocaust}}Occupation of Amsterdam by Nazi Germany began 10 May 1940.[10] Amsterdam, Holland's largest city,[11] had an estimated 75-80,000 Jews, approximately 53-57% of the country's Jewish population.[12][13] Among them was Anne Frank. Approximately 25-35,000 of Holland's Jews were refugees.[14][15] but most of these were not in Amsterdam.[16] Although fewer than 10 percent of Amsterdam's population was Jewish, there were two seemingly contradictory outcomes:
Part of the Nazi plan included consolidating Holland's Jewish population into Amsterdam, prior to the "Final Solution."[11] Canadian Forces liberated Amsterdam in the spring of 1945. CheiderIn 1964 Adje Cohen began Jewish classes with five children in his home. This grew into an Orthodox Jewish school (Yeshiva) that provides education for children from kindergarten through high school. Many Orthodox families would have left The Netherlands if not for the existence of the Cheider {{citation needed|date=December 2012}}: Boys and girls learn separately as orthodox Judaism requires, and the education is with a greater focus on the religious needs. By 1993 the Cheider had grown to over 230 pupils and 60 Staff members. The Cheider moved into its current building at Zeeland Street in Amsterdam Buitenveldert. Many prominent Dutch Figures attended the opening, most noteworthy was Princess Margriet who opened the new building.[20][21] Jewish community in the 21st centuryMost of the Amsterdam Jewish community (excluding the Progressive and Sephardic communities) is affiliated to the Ashkenazi Nederlands Israëlitisch Kerkgenootschap. These congregations combined form the Nederlands-Israëlietische Hoofdsynagoge (NIHS) (the Dutch acronym for the Jewish Community of Amsterdam). Some 3,000 Jews are formally part of the NIHS.[1] The Progressive movement currently has some 1,700 Jewish members in Amsterdam, affiliated to the Nederlands Verbond voor Progressief Jodendom. Smaller Jewish communities include the Sephardic Portugees-Israëlitisch Kerkgenootschap (270 families in and out of Amsterdam) and Beit Ha'Chidush, a community of some 200 members and 'friends' connected to Jewish Renewal and Reconstructionist Judaism. Several independent synagogues exist as well.[22] The glossy Joods Jaarboek (Jewish Yearbook), is based in Amsterdam, as well as the weekly Dutch Jewish newspaper in print: the Nieuw Israëlitisch Weekblad. Contemporary synagoguesThere are functioning synagogues in Amsterdam at the following addresses.
Kashrut in AmsterdamKosher food in Amsterdam restaurants and shops is available.[30] There is the possibility of eating kosher in Restaurant Ha-Carmel,[31] and the well-known Sandwichshop Sal-Meijer.[32] Jewish cultureThe Joods Historisch Museum[33] is the center of Jewish culture in Amsterdam. Other Jewish cultural events include the Internationaal Joods Muziekfestival (International Jewish Music Festival)[34] and the Joods Film Festival (Jewish Film Festival).[35] The Anne Frank House hosts a permanent exhibit on the story of Anne Frank. {{clearleft}}Jewish cemeteriesSix Jewish cemeteries exist in Amsterdam and surroundings, three Orthodox Ashkenazi (affiliated to the NIK), two linked to the Progressive community and one Sephardic. The Askhenazi cemetery[36] at Muiderberg is still frequently used by the Orthodox Jewish community. The Orthodox Ashkenazi cemetery[37] at Zeeburg, founded in 1714, was the burial ground for some 100,000 Jews between 1714 and 1942. After part of the ground of the cemetery was sold in 1956, many graves were transported to theOrthodox Ashkenazi Jewish cemetery[38] near Diemen (also still in use, but less frequent than the one in Muiderberg). A Sephardic cemetery, Beth Haim,[39] exists near the small town of Ouderkerk aan de Amstel, containing the graves of some 28,000 Sephardic Jews. Two Progressive cemeteries, one[40] in Hoofddorp (founded in 1937) and one[40] in Amstelveen (founded in 2002), are used by the large Progressive community. See also
References1. ^1 NIHS General Information. Accessed July 17, 2007 2. ^[https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2007/sep/23/travelnews.amsterdam "Amsterdam closes a window on its red-light tourist trade"] by Anushka Asthana, The Observer, September 23, 2007. 3. ^{{cite news|title=John So, Lord Mayor of Melbourne wins the 2006 World Mayor Award|url=http://www.worldmayor.com/results06/wm_winners06.html|publisher=www.worldmayor.com|date=2006-12-05}} 4. ^1 Ashkenazi Jews in Amsterdam. Edward van Voolen. Accessed July 21, 2007 5. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.jhm.nl/building.aspx?ID=2 |title=Great Synagogue|accessdate=July 21, 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706090926/http://www.jhm.nl/building.aspx?ID=2 |archivedate=July 6, 2007 }} 6. ^Etching showing the Portuguese and High German Synagogues{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, at the Amsterdam City Archives 7. ^ {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706065722/http://www.jhm.nl/building.aspx?ID=3 |date=July 6, 2007 }} 8. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.jhm.nl/building.aspx?ID=4 |title=Dritt Sjoel|accessdate=July 21, 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706065818/http://www.jhm.nl/building.aspx?ID=4 |archivedate=July 6, 2007 }} 9. ^ {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927012038/http://www.jhm.nl/building.aspx?ID=1 |date=September 27, 2007 }} 10. ^{{cite web |author=Linda M. Woolf, Ph.D.|title=Survival and Resistance: The Netherlands Under Nazi Occupation|url=http://faculty.webster.edu/woolflm/netherlands.html}} 11. ^1 2 {{cite web |url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005434|title=Amsterdam}} 12. ^Dutch Census tables, 1930, 1941 13. ^Croes, Marnix (Winter 2006). "The Holocaust in the Netherlands and the Rate of Jewish Survival'" 14. ^Voolen, Edward van. "Askhenazi Jews in Amsterdam" 15. ^{{cite web|title=Administrators of the German occupied Netherlands during WW II|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040124052455/http://www.geocities.com/capitolHill/rotunda/2209/Netherlands.html}} 16. ^A rare photo of a round-up of Jews in 1943 in the Uiterwaardenstraat. {{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} 17. ^lasting 3 days 18. ^Tammes, Peter "Surviving the Holocaust: Socio-demographic Differences Among Amsterdam Jews 19. ^The percentage of Pre-WW II Dutch Jewry surviving is estimated as under 20% 20. ^{{Interlanguage link multi|Cheider|nl}} 21. ^{{cite news|last=van Kemenade.|first=J|title=Margriet opent Cheider|url=http://resources3.kb.nl/010860000/pdf/DDD_010860603.pdf|accessdate=23 April 2012|newspaper=Nieuw Israelietisch Weekblad|date=4 February 1994|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121053305/http://resources3.kb.nl/010860000/pdf/DDD_010860603.pdf|archivedate=21 January 2016|df=}} 22. ^Jewish Amsterdam. Accessed July 20, 2007 23. ^{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929084134/http://www.jhm.nl/amsterdam_eng.aspx?deelkaart=4&ID=35|title=Jewish Historical Museum - Gerard Dou Synagogue|date=29 September 2007|publisher=}} 24. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.gerarddou.org/ |title=Gerarddou.org |publisher=Gerarddou.org |date= |accessdate=2012-12-11}} 25. ^http://www.degerrit.nl 26. ^1 2 {{cite web|url=http://www.chabadamsterdamcenter.com/templates/articlecco_cdo/aid/1402675/jewish/Synagogues-and-Services.htm|title=Synagogues and Services - Chabad Central Amsterdam - בית חב"ד מרכז אמסטרדם|website=www.chabadamsterdamcenter.com}} 27. ^Siraad.nl {{nl icon}} 28. ^{{cite web|url=http://beeldbank.amsterdam.nl/component/option,com_result/Itemid,9/qasked,1/qtype,nieuw/gn,1422753/view,1/ |title=Beeldbank.amsterdam.nl |publisher=Beeldbank.amsterdam.nl |date=1998-12-04 |accessdate=2012-12-11}} 29. ^{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929084159/http://www.jhm.nl/amsterdam_eng.aspx?deelkaart=2&ID=15|title=Jewish Historical Museum - Uilenburg synagogue|date=29 September 2007|publisher=}} 30. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nik.nl/content_pagina_eng.asp?paginaId=41&rubriek=39 |title=NIK.nl |publisher=NIK.nl |date= |accessdate=2012-12-11}} 31. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.hacarmel.nl/en/ |title=Hacarmel.nl |publisher=Hacarmel.nl |date= |accessdate=2012-12-11 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130205121/http://www.hacarmel.nl/en/ |archivedate=2012-11-30 |df= }} 32. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.sal-meijer.com/english/index.php |title=Sal-meijer.com |publisher=Sal-meijer.com |date= |accessdate=2012-12-11 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102115630/http://www.sal-meijer.com/english/index.php |archivedate=2013-01-02 |df= }} 33. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.jhm.nl/ |title=Joods Historisch Museum |publisher=Jhm.nl |date= |accessdate=2012-12-11}} 34. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.joodsmuziekfestival.nl/ |title=Joodsmuziekfestival.nl |publisher=Joodsmuziekfestival.nl |date= |accessdate=2012-12-11}} 35. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.joodsfilmfestival.nl/ |title=Joodsfilmfestival.nl |publisher=Joodsfilmfestival.nl |date= |accessdate=2012-12-11}} 36. ^{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060743/http://www.jhm.nl/amsterdam_eng.aspx?deelkaart=4&ID=29|title=Pagina niet gevonden / Page not found -|date=4 March 2016|publisher=}} 37. ^{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303185226/http://www.jhm.nl/amsterdam_eng.aspx?deelkaart=4&ID=28|title=Pagina niet gevonden / Page not found -|date=3 March 2016|publisher=}} 38. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.jhm.nl/culture-and-history/amsterdam/diemen-cemetery |title=Amsterdam Diemen cemetery |publisher=Jhm.nl |date= |accessdate=2012-12-11}} 39. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.jhm.nl/culture-and-history/amsterdam/portuguese-cemetery-beth-haim |title=Portuguese cemetery Beth Haim |publisher=Jhm.nl |date= |accessdate=2012-12-11}} 40. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.ljgamsterdam.nl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=29&Itemid=43 |title=Begraafplaats Gan Hasjalom|accessdate=November 18, 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929124852/http://www.ljgamsterdam.nl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=29&Itemid=43 |archivedate=September 29, 2007 }} SourcesThis article incorporates text from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, and has been released under the GFDL. Further reading
External links{{Commons category|Judaism in Amsterdam}}
5 : History of Amsterdam|Jewish Dutch history|Jews and Judaism in Amsterdam|Jewish history by city|Holocaust locations in the Netherlands |
随便看 |
|
开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识,基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识,是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。