1. Introduction
    History  Population 

2. Sounds
    Consonants  Vowels  Syllable Structure 

3. Grammar
    Basic Word Order  Reduplication  Numerals   Pronouns    Personal pronouns    Demonstrative pronouns    Possessive pronouns    Person Marking  

4. Vocabulary
    Indigenous Vocabulary 

5. Endangerment
    Materials  Vitality 

6. References

7. Further reading

Hoava is an Oceanic language spoken by 1000–1500 people on New Georgia Island, Solomon Islands. Speakers of Hoava are multilingual and usually also speak Roviana, Marovo, SI Pijin, English.

Introduction

History

Hoava is an Austronesian language that is spoken mostly on the island of New Georgia. New Georgia is a mountainous island, 85 kilometres long and 41 kilometres wide at its widest part, with a total area of 2,145 square kilometres, covered with dense rainforests (Davis 2003). The island of New Georgia was involved in WWII that was later named the New Georgia Campaign which lasted from June 20 to November 3.

Population

Hoava is an Austronesian language that is spoken in 3 known locations: Western Province, New Georgia island, North Marovo lagoon, but mainly New Georgia island of the Solomon Islands. According to a 1986 census there are about 2,360 speakers of the language, but language is spoken by 460 people in latest census that was taken in 1999 suggesting a huge drop off in the number of speakers.

Sounds

Consonants

Hoava uses 16 consonants in its phoneme system, /p, t, b, d, s, β, m, n, r, l, dʒ, k, g, ɣ, ŋ, h/.

Vowels

Hoava uses 5 vowels: /i, ɛ, a, ɔ, u/. There is no phonemic distinction of vowel length, although vowels can be lengthened when stressed (Davis 2003). The vowels can be combined into pairs with the weight of two syllables (Davis 2003).

Syllable Structure

Hoava has an open syllable structure of (C)V. Two vowels occurring together are counted as two syllables, since they function as such for transitive marking rules (Davis 2003). For many Oceanic languages of the Austronesian family group it is common that words do not end in consonant..

Grammar

Basic Word Order

In traditional typology Hoava is a VSO language. There are some modifications to this particular pattern for focusing and topicalization purposes (Davis 2003).

Reduplication

Reduplication is frequently used in Hoava as a method of word formation, to express intensification, and to form the progressive aspect of a verb (Davis 2003). Reduplication is used to create words denoting entities related to the referent of the source word, either as part of the entity, or having a resemblance to it, or being a metaphorical extension"(Davis 2003).

• ’’bui’’, lost; ‘’bu-bui’’, forgot
• ’’yasa’’, jump; ‘’yasa-yasa’’, jumping

Numerals

Hoava has a decimal system of numbering”(Davis 2003).

• ’’keke’’ one
• ’’karua’’ two
• ’’hike’’ three
• ’’made’’ four
• ’’lima’’ five
• ’’onomo’’ six
• ’’zuapa’’ seven
• ’’vesu’’ eight
• ’’sia’’ nine
• ’’manege’’ ten

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Information in the following sections is based on Davis 2003:45-109,^[1] unless otherwise stated. Subsequent references give only relevant page numbers and figures.

Within the Language Hoava there exists three sets of characteristics in order to distinguish between which personal pronoun is to be used. This includes whether the pronoun is; first, second or third person. The Plurality needed, whether it is singular or plural and whether it is Inclusion or exclusion.

There are a number of extra circumstances and exceptions which are also present when discussing the use of personal pronouns. One specific example of this is the third person singular form isa which is used as an emphatic (forcible) form or used to refer to a particular topic. Speakers of Hoava tend to use sa for a more general pronoun.

The third person pronoun eri is used with a dual form created by using the number two ‘karu’ after a plural pronoun. A trial form is also created by using the number three prefix ‘ka-hike’. The dual forms are obligatory whereas trial forms can be replaced by a simple plural.

Forms specific for four people are common when it is significant to know that four people were involved. The number four follows the pronoun with the number prefix added e.g. gita ka-made, gami ka-made. Other numbers can be substituted into a sentence in the same matter. When these dual or numerical forms are used, it is most commonly at the start of a narrative to add the names of the others in the group. This does not include the speaker themselves. These pronoun forms can come before a noun phrase in apposition.

Examples:

Go.up return come PRO:3PL two

‘They (two) came back up.’

Some other characteristics to note with the use of pronouns in Hoava is that pronouns can be followed by demonstratives and by the restrictive particle qa, an example of this can be seen below.

There exist some cases in Hoava in which it is not completely necessary for a pronoun to be present or where exceptions to the use of pronouns exist. Firstly; It is common for the pronoun to be dropped from a sentence completely once it has been made clear who is being referred to, or if it is clear who is being referred to by other information such as object markers. Also, the dropping of pronouns referring to animate objects is predominantly done with first person singular and plural and second person plural pronouns in object position, as the object marker on the verb is the same as the pronoun.

Inanimate objects in Hoava do not often have a pronominal reference; a construction which resembles a pronoun to identify the object. However, it is possible to use a pronoun for an inanimate object even though it is rare.

Within Hoava Language there exists no reflexive forms of the pronouns. In order to create the same meaning as a reflexive the verb pule (meaning return) is used. “There is no subject or object pronoun used, other than the object marker on the applicative suffix…in any of the sentences elicited with the pule used in this manner.” (pg.49) ^[1]

New cut return-AP-1SG REST

‘I’ve just cut myself.’

As you can see in the example above pule has been used with the applicable suffix and the singular, exclusive first person, pronoun rao, to create the meaning of the reflexive form ‘I’ve’. Also, the pronoun is followed by the restrictive particle qa which is a characteristic that was mentioned earlier to sometimes occur with the use of pronouns.

The morpheme tale- can also be used in the instances mentioned above but rather than performing a reflexive function it acts as an emphasis that no other people were involved apart from the speaker.

New cut return-AP-3SG alone-3SG

‘(She) has just cut herself.’

Within the lexicon of Hoava there exists some verbs which have an inherent reflexive meaning built into them and so therefore the use of an extra form which suggests that it is reflexive is not needed. These are verbs which automatically mean performing an action to oneself such as; hele ‘wash oneself’ or viraka ‘scratch (oneself)’

Demonstrative pronouns

In Hoava there exists a three-way spatial differentiation of deixis. This includes: proximal, close to the speaker; distal, close to the hearer; and remote, distant for the speaker and the hearer. Of the three sets of demonstratives in Hoava two sets concern the use of pronouns. A set of long forms that are used as both noun modifiers and as demonstrative pronouns and another set which is restricted to being used only as demonstrative pronouns. An extra set of ‘near to hearer’ long demonstratives is also used both as a noun modifier and demonstrative pronoun. These sets all have both singular and plural forms which can be used.

These long demonstratives can act as demonstrative pronouns at the beginning of a noun phrase.

An example of the use of long demonstratives is as follows:

PROX:PL ART:PL man choose

‘These are the chosen men.’

It is more common in Hoava for the morphemes isana and tiara to be used in place as demonstrative pronouns in favour of the singular distal demonstratives sani and the plural sari. It is also not common for the remote demonstratives Huani and Huari to be used.

Hoava has a set of short demonstratives, which are a group of particles found after the noun head of a noun phrase. They have the noun modifying function of adding a sense of definiteness and they may also signify tense. They can be used with common nouns, names, and pronouns.

For example, a short demonstrative follows a personal pronoun:

Friend ART what do.TR-3SG POR:2PL DEM

‘Friend, what are you doing?’

The long demonstratives mentioned above cannot occur after the emphatic particles ba and ga as another set of emphatic demonstrative pronouns exist for that case. This other set is used also in questions or as an alternative to the long forms.

For example:

ART what PRO:SG ART lime EMPH DIST:SG

‘What is this?’ ‘That’s lime!’

Possessive pronouns

Hoava has a set of possessive pronouns which are used at the head of a noun phrase before the item which is being possessed. They are used in cases of exclusive possession.

For example:

POSS:1PL.EX village

‘our village’

ART POSS:3PL thing old-3PL

‘Their old things’

Person Marking

Hoava has two optional articles E and se which, may or may not be used with personal names or personified animals and birds. These articles are used before the name and although Se is more likely to be used over E neither example is completely necessary and can be dropped.

Example:

S. G. teacher POSS:1PL.EX PRO:1PL.EX

‘Our teacher was Samu Gobe.’

Vocabulary

Indigenous Vocabulary

• ’’hore’’ canoe
• ’’leboto’’ bushknife
• ’’igana’’ fish
• ’’inebara’’ feast
• ’’pirae’’ now
• ’’tavete’’ make
• ’’keke’’ one
• ’’mae’’ come
• ’’toka’’ follow
• ’’puta’’ sleep
• ’’gua’’ did
• ’’heleana’’ river
• ’’ko’’ be
• ’’tala’’ “where
• ’’la’’ go
• ’’koburu’’ child
• ’’ome’’ see

Endangerment

Materials

There are not many materials written in Hoava. The only material of outside world access is a guide to grammar by Karen Davis and a storybook. With it only beginning to fall out of use. There are translations of the bible and stories but not much else is known about surviving materials.

Vitality

According to Ethnologue, Hoava has a 6b (Yellow) endangerment status. “Intergenerational transmission is in the process of being broken, but the childbearing generation can still use the language so it is possible that revitalization efforts could restore transmission of the language in the home”(Lewis 2013).Without intergenerational transfer, main outlet uses will soon be destroyed or fade away while other languages take its place. With the decrease of L1 speakers, the value of the language in the community will only drop, till it is no longer applicable to the community. Combined with the low number of speakers, if no action is to take place, Hoava will fade to away into disuse.

References

Further reading

• Crystal, David. Language Death. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2000. Print.
• Davis, Karen. 2003. A Grammar of the Hoava Language, Western Solomons. Canberra, Australia: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, the Australian National University, Print.
• Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2013. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com.

• Tarmar
• Tarmarind
• Tarma Roving
• Tarmashirin
• Tarmas TV
• T. Armitage
• T Armitage
• Tarmiya
• Tarmiyah
• Tarmizi taher
• Tarmo Kink
• Tarmo Koivisto
• Tarmonbarry
• Tarmo Neemelo
• Tarmon Gai'don
• Tarmo Oja
• Tarmo Ruutli
• Tarmo Rüütli
• Tarmstedt
• Tarmstedt (Samtgemeinde)
• Tarmure
• Tar (musical instrument)
• Tar (musique)
• Tarmvred
• Tarna Feir