“Colonial mentality”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

A colonial mentality is the internalized attitude of ethnic or cultural inferiority felt by people as a result of colonization, i.e. them being colonized by another group.^[1] It corresponds with the belief that the cultural values of the colonizer are inherently superior to one's own.^[2] The term has been used by postcolonial scholars to discuss the transgenerational effects of colonialism present in former colonies following decolonization.^[3]^[4] It is commonly used as an operational concept for framing ideological domination in historical colonial experiences.^[5]^[6] In psychology colonial mentality has been used to explain instances of collective depression, anxiety, and other widespread mental health issues in populations that have experienced colonization.^[7]^[8] Notable Marxist influences on the postcolonial concept of colonial mentality include Frantz Fanon's works on the fracturing of the colonial psyche through Western cultural domination,^[9] as well as the concept of cultural hegemony developed by Italian Communist Party Founder Antonio Gramsci.^[10]{{toclimit|3}}

Influences from Marxism

Frantz Fanon

Frantz Fanon's Marxist writings on imperialism, racism, and decolonizing struggles have influenced post-colonial discussions about the internalization of colonial prejudice. Fanon first tackled the problem of, what he called, the "colonial alienation of the person"^[11] as a mental health issue through psychiatric analysis.^[12]

In The Wretched of the Earth (French: Les Damnés de la Terre), published in 1961, Fanon used psychiatry to analyze how French colonization and the carnage of the Algerian War had mentally affected Algerians' self-identity and mental health.^[13] The book argues that during the period of colonization there was a subtle and constant mental pathology that developed within the colonial psyche.^[14] Fanon argued that the colonial psyche is fractured by the lack of mental and material homogeneity as a result of the colonial power's Western culture being pressured onto the colonized population despite the existing material differences between them.^[15]

Here Fanon expands traditional Marxist understandings of historical materialism to explore how the dissonance between material existence and culture functions to transform the colonized people through the mold of the Western bourgeoisie.^[16] This meant that the native Algerian came to view their own traditional culture and identity through the lens of colonial prejudice. Fanon observed that average Algerians internalized and then openly repeated remarks that were in line with the institutionalized racist culture of the French colonizers; dismissing their own culture as backward due to the internalization of Western colonial ideologies.^[17]

According to Fanon this results in a destabilizing existential conflict within the colonized culture:

British India

During the period of the British Raj, proponents of British Imperialism typically regarded native Indian culture with disdain and supported European colonization as a beneficial "civilizing mission".^[19] Colonization was largely framed as an act of charity aimed at uplifting the "uncivilized" Indian, rather than an act of direct exploitation and domination; which targeted native cultural practices deemed to be "barbaric" by colonial administrators.^[20]

For example, the colonial policies barring the self-immolating practice of sati,^[21] and the influence of British missionaries in discouraging perceived acts of idolatry,^[22] the latter of which has been noted by some scholars to have played a large role in the developments of the modern definition of Hinduism.^[23]^[24] These claims base their assumptions on the lack of a unified Hindu identity prior to the colonial period,^[25] and modern Hinduism's unprecedented outward focus on a monotheistic Vedanta worldview.^[24]^[26] These developments have been read as the result of colonial prejudices which discouraged aspects of Indian religions which differed too greatly from the template of Christianity.^[27] It has been noted that the prominence of the Bhagavad Gita as a primary religious text in Hindu discourse was a historical response to colonial criticisms of Indian culture.^[26] Europeans found that the Gita had more in common with their own Christian Bible, leading to the denouncement of Hindu practices more distantly related to monotheistic world views; with native subjects continually characterizing their faith as the equal of Christianity in belief (more clear monotheism) and structure (providing an equivalent primary sacred text).^[28]

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), India's current ruling party, follows this tradition of nationalistic Hinduism (Hindutva), and promotes an Indian national identity infused with neo-Vedantic thought influenced by this historical colonial mentality.^[33]^[34]

Critics have claimed that British writer Rudyard Kipling's portrayals of Indian characters in his works generally supported the colonialist view that colonized people were incapable of surviving without the help of Europeans, describing these portrayals as racist.^[35] In his famous poem "The White Man's Burden", Kipling directly makes this point by romanticizing British colonialism in India and elsewhere in the world.^[36]^[37] Kipling's poem idolizes Western culture as entirely rational and civilized, while treating non-white cultures as 'childlike' and 'demonic'.^[38] Similar sentiments have been interpreted in Kipling's other works. Notably defending the Second Anglo-Boer War as a "white man's war";^[39] presenting 'whiteness' as a morally and culturally superior trait of the West, and using it as a legitimizing for British colonial expansion and rule.^[40] His portrayal of Indians in his Jungle Book stories have also been criticized as examples of the chauvinistic infantilization of colonized peoples in popular culture.^[41] Generally, fiction, such as Kipling's works, have contributed towards colonial mentality in the ways that the colonized people in these fictional narratives are made submissive to and dependent on white colonizers.^[42]^[43]

Individuals of Indian ancestry who adopt European culture, internalizing these colonial prejudices, have sometimes been labeled "Macaulay's Children". The term is usually used in a derogatory fashion, connoting disloyalty to India. It derives from 19th century British historian, politician, and colonial administrator Thomas Macaulay, who regarded British culture as superior to Indian culture and who famously argued in favor of replacing Indian languages/dialects with English as the medium of instruction in educational institutions.^[44]^[45] The consequences of this development can still be felt in contemporary India, where the use of English, as opposed to Hindi, still carries with it a level of superiority.^[46] Nationalist politicians have campaigned and pushed forward policy changes to promote Hindi official use in education and media over English.^[47]

Spanish Empire

In the colonial territories administered by the Spanish Empire, racial mixing between Spaniard settlers and the indigenous peoples resulted in the restrictive racial classes, like mestizo, which promoted Spanish cultural hegemony and restricted 'Otherness' within these colonized societies.^[48]^[49]

Mestizos and other mixed raced combinations were categorized into different castas by colonial administrators as a means of maintaining Spanish dominance over the majority. This system was applied to Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Philippines, where large populations of mixed raced individuals made up the increasing majority of the colonized population.^[50]^[51]

These racial categories punished those with Black African, Afro-Latin, or indígenas (natives) heritage specifically. With those of European descent given privilege over these other mixtures. As a result of this system, Mestizos struggled to downplay their indigenous heritage and cultural trappings, in order to appear superficially more Spanish.^[52]^[53] With these internalized prejudices individuals' choices of clothes, occupations, and forms of religious expression.^[53]^[54] Those of mixed racial identities who wanted to receive the institutional benefits of being Spanish (such as higher educational institutions and career opportunities), could do so by suppressing their own cultures and acting with "Spanishness".^[55] This mentality lead to commonplace racial forgery in Latin America, often accompanied by legitimizing oral accounts of a Spanish ancestor and a Spanish surname. Most mixed-white and white people in Latin America have Spanish surnames inherited from Spanish ancestors, while most other Latin Americans who have Spanish names and surnames acquired them through the Christianization and Hispanicization of the indigenous and African slave populations by Spanish friars.^[56]^[57]^[58]

In this heavily racial segregated context, the encomienda system was put in place. Under this system, entire native communities could be used as forced labor under the guise of collecting tribute. A means of rewarding notable soldiers or colonial officials with colonial possessions, as well as extorting native resources with free indigenous labor.^[59] Eventually, some Spaniards openly objected to the encomienda system, notably Bartolomé de Las Casas, who insisted that the American indígenas were human beings with souls and rights and were, in the words of Queen Isabella I, "to be treated with justice and fairness".^[60]

Historically, the religious identities of natives were targeted and suppressed by colonial authorities for Christian conversion.^[61] The Spaniards were committed to converting their Amerindian subjects to Roman Catholicism, and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end.^[62] However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as Amerindian groups simply blended Catholicism with their traditional beliefs.^[63] Syncretism between native beliefs and Christianity is still largely prevalent in Indian and Mestizo communities in Latin America.^[64] On the other hand, the Spaniards did not impose their language to the degree they did their religion, and the Roman Catholic Church even evangelized in Quechua, Nahuatl, Guarani, etc., contributing to the expansion of these Amerindian languages and equipping them with writing systems.^[65]

Philippines

Prior to colonization by the Spanish (1565-1898), the Sulu Archipelago (located in southern Philippines) was a colony of the Majapahit Empire (1293–1527) based in Indonesia. The Americans were the last country to colonize the Philippines (1898–1946) and nationalists claim that it continues to act as a neo-colony of the US despite its formal independence in 1946.^[66]^[67]

In the Philippines colonial mentality is most evident in the preference for Filipino mestizos (primarily those of mixed native Filipino and white ancestry, but also mixed indigenous Filipino and Chinese, and other ethnic groups) in the entertainment industry and mass media, in which they have received extensive exposure despite constituting a small fraction of the population.^[68]^[69]^[70]

The Cádiz Constitution of 1812 automatically gave Spanish citizenship to all Filipinos regardless of race.^[66] The census of 1870 stated that at least one-third of the population of Luzon had partial Hispanic ancestry (from varying points of origin and ranging from Latin America to Spain).^[71]

The combined number of all types of white mestizos or Eurasians is 3.6%, according to a genetic study by Stanford University.^[72] This is contradicted by another genetic study done by California University which stated that Filipinos possess moderate amounts of European admixture.^[73]

Evidence suggests that fair skin was a characteristic of the cloistered binukot, who were often kept indoors from a very early age. In historical epics of the Philippines their fair skin was presented as a standard of beauty among the upper class.^[74] Some cite this as proof that desire for light-colored skin predates colonial influences.

One of the more adverse physical consequences in the idealization and acceptance of colonial mentality can be seen in the high rate of consumer demand for skin bleaching products used by some indigenous women and a smaller percentage of indigenous men and dark-skinned mestizas and mestizos, in the Philippines.^[68]^[75]

Demand in the Philippines and in some other tropical countries continue to be widespread.^[76]

See also

References

1. ^Nunning, Vera. (06/01/2015). Fictions of Empire and the (un-making of imperialist mentalities: Colonial discourse and post-colonial criticism revisited. Forum for world literature studies. (7)2. p.171-198.
2. ^{{Cite journal|last=David|first=E. J. R.|last2=Okazaki|first2=Sumie|date=2010-04-01|title=Activation and Automaticity of Colonial Mentality|journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|language=en|volume=40|issue=4|pages=850|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00601.x|issn=1559-1816}}
3. ^{{Cite journal|last=David|first=E. J. R.|title=Testing the validity of the colonial mentality implicit association test and the interactive effects of covert and overt colonial mentality on Filipino American mental health.|journal=Asian American Journal of Psychology|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=31–45|doi=10.1037/a0018820|year=2010}}
4. ^{{Cite book|title=Unconscious dominions : psychoanalysis, colonial trauma, and global sovereignties|date=2011|publisher=Duke University Press|others=Anderson, Warwick, 1958-, Jenson, Deborah., Keller, Richard C. (Richard Charles), 1969-|isbn=9780822393986|location=Durham, NC|oclc=757835774}}
5. ^{{Cite journal|last=Goss|first=Andrew|date=2009|title=Decent colonialism? Pure science and colonial ideology in the Netherlands East Indies, 1910–1929|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-southeast-asian-studies/article/decent-colonialism-pure-science-and-colonial-ideology-in-the-netherlands-east-indies-19101929/BC7B305D4BD58EAB5093B5536A767275|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|volume=40|issue=1|pages=187–214|doi=10.1017/s002246340900006x|issn=1474-0680|via=}}
6. ^{{Cite journal|last=Felipe|first=Lou Collette S.|title=The relationship of colonial mentality with Filipina American experiences with racism and sexism.|journal=Asian American Journal of Psychology|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=25–30|doi=10.1037/aap0000033|year=2016}}
7. ^{{Cite journal|last=Paranjpe|first=Anand C.|date=2016-08-11|title=Indigenous Psychology in the Post- Colonial Context: An Historical Perspective|journal=Psychology and Developing Societies|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=27–43|doi=10.1177/097133360201400103}}
8. ^{{Cite journal|last=Utsey|first=Shawn O.|last2=Abrams|first2=Jasmine A.|last3=Opare-Henaku|first3=Annabella|last4=Bolden|first4=Mark A.|last5=Williams|first5=Otis|date=2014-05-21|title=Assessing the Psychological Consequences of Internalized Colonialism on the Psychological Well-Being of Young Adults in Ghana|journal=Journal of Black Psychology|language=en|volume=41|issue=3|pages=195–220|doi=10.1177/0095798414537935}}
9. ^{{Cite book|title=Forms of Fanonism : Frantz Fanon's critical theory and the dialectics of decolonization|last=1972-|first=Rabaka, Reiland|date=2010|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=9780739140338|location=Lanham, Md.|oclc=461323889}}
10. ^{{Cite book|title=The postcolonial Gramsci|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|others=Srivastava, Neelam Francesca Rashmi, 1972-, Bhattacharya, Baidik, 1975-|isbn=9780415874816|location=New York|oclc=749115630}}
11. ^{{Cite book|title=Black Skin, White Masks|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2008|isbn=978 0 7453 2849 2|location=London, United Kingdom|pages=xxiii}}
12. ^{{Cite journal|last=Robertson|first=Michael|last2=Walter|first2=Garry|date=2009|title=Frantz Fanon and the confluence of psychiatry, politics, ethics and culture|journal=Acta Neuropsychiatrica|volume=21|issue=6|pages=308–309|doi=10.1111/j.1601-5215.2009.00428.x|issn=0924-2708}}
13. ^{{Cite journal|last=Bell|first=Vikki|date=2011-01-04|title=Introduction: Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth 50 Years On|journal=Theory, Culture & Society|language=en|volume=27|issue=7–8|pages=7–14|doi=10.1177/0263276410383721}}
14. ^{{Cite book|url=http://abahlali.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Frantz-Fanon-The-Wretched-of-the-Earth-1965.pdf|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=250|oclc=1316464}}
15. ^{{Cite book|url=http://abahlali.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Frantz-Fanon-The-Wretched-of-the-Earth-1965.pdf|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=194|oclc=1316464}}
16. ^{{Cite book|url=http://abahlali.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Frantz-Fanon-The-Wretched-of-the-Earth-1965.pdf|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=162|oclc=1316464}}
17. ^{{Cite book|url=http://abahlali.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Frantz-Fanon-The-Wretched-of-the-Earth-1965.pdf|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=161|oclc=1316464}}
18. ^{{Cite book|url=http://abahlali.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Frantz-Fanon-The-Wretched-of-the-Earth-1965.pdf|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=194–195|oclc=1316464}}
19. ^{{Cite book|title=Cultural Heritage as Civilizing Mission {{!}} SpringerLink|last=Falser|first=Michael|publisher=Cham: Springer|year=2015|isbn=978-3-319-13637-0|location=|pages=8–9|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-13638-7|series = Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context}}
20. ^{{Cite journal|last=Fischer–Tiné|first=Harald|date=2016-07-26|title=Britain's other civilising mission|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=295–338|doi=10.1177/001946460504200302}}
21. ^{{Cite journal|last=Mukta|first=Parita|title=The 'Civilizing Mission': The Regulation and Control of Mourning in Colonial India|journal=Feminist Review|volume=63|issue=1|pages=25–47|doi=10.1080/014177899339045|year=1999}}
22. ^{{Cite journal|last=Ganguly|first=Swagato|date=2017-01-02|title=Idolatry: concept and metaphor in colonial representations of India|journal=South Asian History and Culture|volume=8|issue=1|pages=19–91|doi=10.1080/19472498.2016.1260353|issn=1947-2498}}
23. ^{{Cite book|url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/0195166558.001.0001/acprof-9780195166552|title=Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion - Oxford Scholarship|last=Pennington|first=Brian K.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0195166552|location=|pages=|language=en|doi=10.1093/0195166558.001.0001}}
24. ^¹{{Cite book|title=Bourgeois Hinduism, or the faith of the modern Vedantists : rare discourses from early Colonial Bengal|last=Hatch|first=Brian A.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780195326086|location=New York|pages=|oclc=191044640}}
25. ^{{Cite journal|last=Sarma|first=Deepak|date=2006-04-01|title=Hindu Leaders in North America?|journal=Teaching Theology & Religion|language=en|volume=9|issue=2|pages=115–120|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9647.2006.00272.x|issn=1467-9647}}
26. ^¹²{{Cite journal|last=Bayly|first=C. A.|date=2010|title=INDIA, THE BHAGAVAD GITA AND THE WORLD|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-intellectual-history/article/india-the-bhagavad-gita-and-the-world/17B8BB3B1C73B98FEB166DEC9CF49111|journal=Modern Intellectual History|volume=7|issue=2|pages=275–295|doi=10.1017/s1479244310000077|issn=1479-2451|via=}}
27. ^{{Cite journal|last=Yelle|first=Robert A.|date=2005-04-01|title=Christians and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural Communication since 1500. Edited by Eric Frykenberg (Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003) 419 pp. $39.00|journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History|volume=35|issue=4|pages=681–682|doi=10.1162/002219505323383059|issn=0022-1953}}
28. ^{{Cite journal|last=Longkumer|first=Arkotong|date=2017-04-03|title=The power of persuasion: Hindutva, Christianity, and the discourse of religion and culture in Northeast India|journal=Religion|volume=47|issue=2|pages=203–227|doi=10.1080/0048721x.2016.1256845|issn=0048-721X}}
29. ^¹²{{Cite book|title=Hindu Nationalism : A Reader|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe.|date=2007|publisher=Princeton University Press|others=|isbn=9780691130972|location=Princeton, N.J.|pages=6–7|oclc=368365428}}
30. ^¹{{Cite journal|last=Battaglia|first=Gino|date=2017-10-03|title=Neo-Hindu Fundamentalism Challenging the Secular and Pluralistic Indian State|url=http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/8/10/216|journal=Religions|language=en|volume=8|issue=10|pages=216|doi=10.3390/rel8100216}}
31. ^{{Cite book|title=Hindu Nationalism : A reader|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe.|date=2007|publisher=Princeton University Press|others=|isbn=9780691130972|location=Princeton, N.J.|pages=7|oclc=368365428}}
32. ^{{Cite book|title=Bourgeois Hinduism, or the faith of the modern Vedantists : rare discourses from early Colonial Bengal|last=Hatcher|first=Brian A.|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195326086|location=New York|pages=|oclc=191044640}}
33. ^{{Cite journal|last=Harriss|first=John|date=2015-10-02|title=Hindu Nationalism in Action: The Bharatiya Janata Party and Indian Politics|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=38|issue=4|pages=712–718|doi=10.1080/00856401.2015.1089826|issn=0085-6401}}
34. ^{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Jan|date=2015|title=India's Right Turn|url=https://read-dukeupress-edu.proxy.library.carleton.ca/world-policy-journal|journal=World Policy Journal|volume=32 |issue=2|pages=93–103|via=|doi=10.1177/0740277515591547}}
35. ^{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/443889.stm | work=BBC News | title=Kipling comes under review | date=10 September 1999 | accessdate=2010-04-30}}
36. ^{{Cite journal|last=Brantlinger|first=Patrick|date=2007|title=Kipling's "The White Man's Burden" and Its Afterlives|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/209518|journal=English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920|volume=50|issue=2|pages=172–191|doi=10.1353/elt.2007.0017|issn=1559-2715}}
37. ^{{Cite journal|last=Brantlinger|first=Patrick|date=2005|title=The Complexity of Kipling's Imperialist Politics|url=http://muse.jhu.edu.proxy.library.carleton.ca/article/366432/pdf|journal=English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920|volume=48 |issue=1|pages=88|via=}}
38. ^{{Cite journal|last=Syed|first=Jawad|last2=Ali|first2=Faiza|date=2011-03-01|title=The White Woman's Burden: from colonial civilisation to Third World development|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=32|issue=2|pages=349–365|doi=10.1080/01436597.2011.560473|issn=0143-6597}}
39. ^{{Cite journal|last=Free|first=Melissa|date=2016|title=Fault Lines of Loyalty: Kipling's Boer War Conflict|jstor=10.2979/victorianstudies.58.2.12|journal=Victorian Studies|volume=58|issue=2|pages=314–323|doi=10.2979/victorianstudies.58.2.12|via=}}
40. ^{{Cite journal|last=Mondal|first=Sharleen|date=2014|title=WHITENESS, MISCEGENATION, AND ANTI-COLONIAL REBELLION IN RUDYARD KIPLING'S THE MAN WHO WOULD BE KING|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/victorian-literature-and-culture/article/whiteness-miscegenation-and-anticolonial-rebellion-in-rudyard-kiplings-the-man-who-would-be-king/91FEB2B55B2A8FD53713092881F1C00A|journal=Victorian Literature and Culture|volume=42|issue=4|pages=733–751|doi=10.1017/s1060150314000278|issn=1060-1503|via=}}
41. ^{{Cite journal|last=Hotchkiss|first=Jane|date=2001|title=THE JUNGLE OF EDEN: KIPLING, WOLF BOYS, AND THE COLONIAL IMAGINATION|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/victorian-literature-and-culture/article/jungle-of-eden-kipling-wolf-boys-and-the-colonial-imagination/1C7BFF21148EA32F2AE6D51E6CB9F463|journal=Victorian Literature and Culture|volume=29|issue=2|pages=435–449|doi=10.1017/s1060150301002108|issn=1470-1553|via=}}
42. ^{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jonathan Rey|date=2012-11-01|title=When Lions Talk: Wittgenstein, Kipling, and the Language of Colonialism1|journal=Literature Compass|language=en|volume=9|issue=11|pages=884–893|doi=10.1111/j.1741-4113.2012.00916.x|issn=1741-4113}}
43. ^{{Cite book|title=White skins/Black masks : representation and colonialism|last=1960-|first=Low, Gail Ching-Liang|date=1996|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0203359600|location=London|pages=1–10|oclc=54666707}}
44. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt_minute_education_1835.html|title=Minute on Education (1835) by Thomas Babington Macaulay|last=Pritchett|first=Frances|publisher=}}
45. ^{{Cite journal|last=Evans|first=Stephen|date=2002-09-01|title=Macaulay's Minute Revisited: Colonial Language Policy in Nineteenth-century India|journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development|volume=23|issue=4|pages=260–281|doi=10.1080/01434630208666469|issn=0143-4632}}
46. ^{{Cite journal|last=Prasad|first=G. J. V.|date=2006|title=A Minute Stretching into Centuries: Macaulay, English, and India|url=http://go.galegroup.com.proxy.library.carleton.ca/ps/i.do?p=AONE&u=ocul_carleton&id=GALE|A208109729&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon&authCount=1|journal=Nineteenth Century Prose|volume=33 |issue=2|pages=175|via=}}
47. ^{{Cite journal|last=Chand|first=Vineeta|date=2011-02-01|title=Elite positionings towards Hindi: Language policies, political stances and language competence in India1|journal=Journal of Sociolinguistics|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=6–35|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9841.2010.00465.x|issn=1467-9841}}
48. ^{{Cite journal|last=Mangan|first=Jane E.|date=2013|title=Moving Mestizos in Sixteenth-Century Peru: Spanish Fathers, Indigenous Mothers, and the Children In Between|jstor=10.5309/willmaryquar.70.2.0273|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|volume=70|issue=2|pages=273–294|doi=10.5309/willmaryquar.70.2.0273}}
49. ^{{Cite journal|last=Zuniqa|first=Jean-Paul|date=1999|title=The Power of Blood: From Mestizo to the Idea of Race Mixture in Spanish Colonial America|url=|journal=Annales|volume=54 |issue=2|pages=425|via=}}
50. ^{{Cite journal|last=Olson|first=Christa|date=2009-10-16|title=Casta Painting and the Rhetorical Body|journal=Rhetoric Society Quarterly|volume=39|issue=4|pages=307–330|doi=10.1080/02773940902991429|issn=0277-3945}}
51. ^{{Cite journal|last=Lentz|first=Mark|date=2017-02-01|title=Castas, Creoles, and the Rise of a Maya Lingua Franca in Eighteenth-Century Yucatan|url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/hahr/article-abstract/97/1/29/36780/Castas-Creoles-and-the-Rise-of-a-Maya-Lingua|journal=Hispanic American Historical Review|volume=97|issue=1|pages=29–61|doi=10.1215/00182168-3727376|issn=0018-2168}}
52. ^{{Cite book|title=Playing in the cathedral : music, race, and status in New Spain|last=Ramos-Kittrell|first=Jesús A.|isbn=978-0190236830|location=New York, NY|oclc=957615716}}
53. ^¹{{Cite book|title=Maya or mestizo? : nationalism, modernity, and its discontents|last=Ronald.|first=Loewe|date=2011|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=9781442601420|location=Toronto|pages=1–5|oclc=466659990}}
54. ^{{Cite book|title=Indians and mestizos in the "lettered city" : reshaping justice, social hierarchy, and political culture in colonial Peru|last=1954-|first=Dueñas, Alcira|date=2010|publisher=University Press of Colorado|isbn=9781607320197|location=Boulder, Colo.|oclc=664565692}}
55. ^{{Cite book|title=Playing in the cathedral : music, race, and status in New Spain|last=Ramos-Kittrell|first=Jesús A.|publisher=|year=2016|isbn=9780190236816|location=New York, NY|pages=37–38|oclc=933580544}}
56. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/58525?tid=relatedcl|title=Y Tu Black Mama Tambien|last=Quinonez|first=Ernesto|date=19 June 2003|accessdate=2008-05-02}}
57. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06360/748295-51.stm|title=Documentary, Studies Renew Debate About Skin Color's Impact|date=26 December 2006|accessdate=9 August 2010|publisher=Pittsburgh Post Gazette}}
58. ^{{Cite news|url=http://newsblogs.chicagotribune.com/race/2009/02/in-many-different-cultures-and-countries-around-the-world-skin-color-plays-a-huge-role-in-the-concept-of-beauty-lighter-ski/comments/page/2/|title=Is Light Skin Still Preferable to Dark?|date=26 February 2010|accessdate=9 August 2010|publisher=Chicago Tribune}}
59. ^{{Cite journal|last=Batchelder|first=Ronald W.|last2=Sanchez|first2=Nicolas|date=2013-07-01|title=The encomienda and the optimizing imperialist: an interpretation of Spanish imperialism in the Americas|journal=Public Choice|language=en|volume=156|issue=1–2|pages=45–60|doi=10.1007/s11127-012-9953-9|issn=0048-5829}}
60. ^{{cite web|url=http://womenshistory.about.com/cs/medrenqueens/p/p_isabella_i.htm|title=Queen Isabella: More Than Just a Patron of Columbus|publisher=}}
61. ^{{Cite journal|last=Murry|first=Gregory|date=2013-05-16|title="Tears of the Indians" or Superficial Conversion?: José de Acosta, the Black Legend, and Spanish Evangelization in the New World|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/507380|journal=The Catholic Historical Review|volume=99|issue=1|pages=29–51|doi=10.1353/cat.2013.0017|issn=1534-0708}}
62. ^{{Cite journal|last=Wagner|first=E. Logan|date=2014-01-01|title=The Continuity of Sacred Urban Open Space: Facilitating the Indian Conversion to Catholicism in Mesoamerica|journal=Religion and the Arts|volume=18|issue=1–2|pages=61–86|doi=10.1163/15685292-01801005|issn=1568-5292}}
63. ^{{Cite journal|last=Ditchfield|first=Simon|date=2004-12-01|title=Of Dancing Cardinals and Mestizo Madonnas: Reconfiguring the History of Roman Catholicism in the Early Modern Period|journal=Journal of Early Modern History|volume=8|issue=3|pages=386–408|doi=10.1163/1570065043124011|issn=1570-0658}}
64. ^{{Cite journal|last=Beatty|first=Andrew|date=2006-06-01|title=The Pope in Mexico: Syncretism in Public Ritual|journal=American Anthropologist|language=en|volume=108|issue=2|pages=324–335|doi=10.1525/aa.2006.108.2.324|issn=1548-1433}}
65. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.voltairenet.org/article120716.html|title=Eliane Karp: pasado y presente, por Luis Arce Borja|first=Luis Arce Borja, Red|last=Voltaire|publisher=}}
66. ^¹{{Harvnb|Gómez Rivera|2000}}
67. ^{{Harvnb|García|2009}}
68. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=11261|title=Americanchronicle.com|publisher=}}
69. ^{{cite web|title=Is the 'racist' BAYO advert real?|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/260881/scitech/socialmedia/is-the-racist-bayo-advert-real|work=6 June 2012|publisher=GMA News Online|accessdate=24 August 2013}}
70. ^{{cite web|title=The semantics of 'mestizo'|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/267061/lifestyle/culture/the-semantics-of-mestizo|work=27 July 2012|publisher=GMA News|accessdate=24 August 2013}}
71. ^Jagor, Fëdor, et al. (1870). The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes
72. ^{{cite web |url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf |title=A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania |accessdate=2008-02-20 |publisher=Stanford University |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214223039/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf |archivedate=14 February 2010 |df=dmy }}
73. ^{{cite journal |url=http://www.genetics.org/content/early/2015/06/18/genetics.115.178616.full.pdf+html|author= *Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco|title= Self-identified East Asian nationalities correlated with genetic clustering, consistent with extensive endogamy. Individuals of mixed East Asian-European genetic ancestry were easily identified; we also observed a modest amount of European genetic ancestry in individuals self-identified as Filipinos|journal= Genetics Online|year=2015|volume= 200|issue= 4|pages=1285–1295|doi= 10.1534/genetics.115.178616|pmc= 4574246}}
74. ^{{Harvnb|Abrera|2008-2009}}
75. ^Counter, S. Allen, Whitening skin can be deadly, Boston Globe, 16 December 2003
76. ^{{cite web|url=http://www3.niu.edu/ptaa/beauty_in_me.htm|title=The Beauty In Me|publisher=|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715193304/http://www3.niu.edu/ptaa/beauty_in_me.htm|archivedate=15 July 2007|df=dmy-all}}