| 词条 | Imperial Chinese harem system |
| 释义 |
The ranks of imperial consorts have varied over the course of Chinese history but remained important throughout owing to its importance in management of the inner court and in imperial succession, which ranked heirs according to the prominence of their mothers in addition to their strict birth order. Regardless of the age, however, it is common in English translation to simplify these hierarchy into the three ranks of Empress, consorts, and concubines.[1] Early historyThere exists a class of consorts called (媵; yìng) during early historical times in China. These were people who came along with brides as a form of dowry. It could be the female cousin or sister of the bride, or people from other countries (not necessarily from another race). Worth noting is the fact that during the Shang Dynasty, there were times where two Empresses reigned at the same period. The Rites of Zhou contains great details of an imperial consort ranking system. However, as the Rites of Zhou is considered by modern scholars{{who|date=October 2017}} to be merely a fictitious constitution for a utopian society, the system listed in that work of literature cannot be taken word for word. Rather, it offers a rough glimpse into the inner harem during the time. Ranking System for EmperorsThe Rites of Zhou states that for Emperors, they are entitled to the following:
A grand total of 121 women. It was suggested that a system (not necessarily resembling the one listed above) was set up to prevent the situation of having two Empresses. Ranking System for OthersAccording to the Rites of Zhou, Feudal Lords are entitled to 9 consorts in total, and cannot marry again after having 9 consorts, which makes for 1 wife and 8 consorts. For other officers, they are entitled to 1 wife and 1 consort. For normal citizens, only 1 wife is allowed. Qin DynastyFrom the reign of King Huiwen:
Han DynastyWestern HanDuring the reign of Gaozu:
Later:
From the reign of Emperor Yuan:
The principal wife of the Crown Prince was called (妃; fēi). There also exists a sub-ranking system for concubines. They were called (良娣; liáng dì) and (孺人; rú rén). For grandchildren of the Emperor, their principal wives were called (夫人; fū rén). Concubines for these people have no titles, and were simple called (家人子; jiā rén zǐ). Eastern Han
No limits were set for these consorts. This later created situations when more than 20,000 women were living in the palace during the reigns of Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling. Three KingdomsWeiDuring the reign of Cao Cao (who was not an emperor but a king):
During the reign of Emperor Wen:
During the reign of Emperor Ming:
JinThe system was based on the systems used in Cao Wei and the Han Dynasty, as follows:
Southern and Northern DynastiesSong
From 456, during the reign of Emperor Xiaowu:
From the reign of Emperor Ming:
QiIn 479, at the ascension of Emperor Gao, the Minister for Ceremonies (禮司) successfully petitioned the Emperor to establish the following system:
In 481, for the Crown Prince:
In 483, when Emperor Wu ascended to the throne, the Minister for Ceremonies (禮司) successfully petitioned the Emperor to expand the system. This involved elevating the position of (貴妃; guì fēi) to a category all unto itself, with the following ranks:
The new category was just underneath the Empress. In 489, the position of (昭容; zhāo róng) was created to fill the gap created when (淑妃; shū fēi) was elevated to an independent category. LiangDuring the reign of Emperor Wu:
For the Crown Prince:
ChenInitially, during the reign of Gaozu, no specific ranking system for consorts were devised, due to the Emperor's desire to live a simple life. It was only until Emperor Wen's reign did a ranking system came into being:
WeiDuring the reign of Taizu, the consort ranking system was very simple, and only contained the rank of (夫人; fū rén). However, there existed an unwritten, subjective system of prestige rankings in between. It was during the reign of Shizu that the system of rankings listed below came into force:
During the sinification of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Emperor Xiaowen reformed the consort ranking system to the system below:
QiIn the beginning, there were only three ranks for consorts: (夫人; fū rén), (嬪; pín), and (禦; yù). However, as Emperor Wucheng ascended to the throne, a system of rankings more sophisticated than any devised before was promulgated:
Zhou
During the reign of Emperor Xuan, five Empresses were created (unprecedented by Chinese standards):
In addition, there were an innumerable number of consorts in the harem. SuiIn the beginning, there existed a simple system of rankings for imperial consorts:
There also existed a system of (女官; nǚ guān) to manage ceremonial affairs in the harem. The system was based on similar systems in the past. After the death of Empress Dugu, Emperor Wen expanded the ranks of the consorts to the following:
During the reign of Emperor Yang, the ranking system was expanded yet again, based on systems in the past, to the following:
Tang
During the reign of Gaozong:
During the reign of Xuanzong:
The principal wife of the Crown Prince is called Crown Princess (太子妃; tài zǐ fēi), which is held by only one person at any given time. There are 5 other ranks of consorts:
Five Dynasties and Ten KingdomsDuring these times, governments were replaced frequently, and as a result, it is difficult for modern scholars to derive any solid information on ranking systems during these times. However, it is known that the Later Tang used the following system:
Whether there were any limits to the holders of these titles are unknown. Liao, Song, Jin DynasitiesLiaoSong
Jin{{Empty section|date=June 2010}}YuanThe ranking system was at its simplest, and only consists of Empress, Consort, and Concubine. No limits were set on the number of people who could enjoy the title, but only one empress can exist. Although the number of ranks were few, there existed a subsystem of ranking by prestige inside the Yuan harem. The tent (Chinese: 宮帳, translated term from Mongolian: 斡兒垜) that a consort lives in often determines their status. These tents often contain multiple Empresses, Consorts, and Concubines. In the many tents that existed, the first Empress of the first tent is considered to be the most prestigious consort. Eunuchs, concubines, falcons, ginseng, grain, cloth, silver, and gold were sent as tribute by the Goryeo dynasty of Korea to the Mongol Yuan dynasty,[2][3][4][5][6][7] Among those who went to Yuan were Empress Gi and Bak Bulhwa who brought harm to Goryeo.[8] The tribute payment was a burden on Korea.[3] It was considered prestigious to marry Korean women.[9] Korean culture, food and clothing were spread in the Yuan China capital by Korean eunuchs and women like Empress Gi.[10] Korean concubines were taken by the Yuan Emperors.[11][12][13] Yuan officials and envoys took concubines and wives in Korea while they were stationed in Korea for the invasion of Japan.[14] The entry of Korean women into the palace affected relations between Korea and the Yuan.[15] If anything negative happened to their families, Korea itself was blackmailed by the Yuan Mongol's Korean concubines.[16] Great power was attained by some of the Korean women who entered the Mongol court.[17] King Ch'ungson (1309-1313.) married two Mongol women, Princess Botasirin and a non-royal woman named Yesujin. She gave birth to a son and had a posthumously title of "virtuous concubine". In addition 1324, the Yuan court sent a Mongol princess of Wei named Jintong to the Koryo King Ch'ungsug.[18] Thus, the entry of Korean women into the Mongol court was reciprocated by the entry of Mongolian princesses into the Korean Koryo court, and this affected relations between Korea and the Yuan. Imperial marriages between the royal family of Mongol Yuan existed between certain states. These included the Onggirat tribe, Idug-qut's Uighur tribe, the Oirat tribe, and the Koryo (Korean) royal family. This intermarriage between royal families did not occur between the deposed Chinese and Mongols.[19][20] MingThe system was simple with five commonly used titles:
Other known titles including:
For the Crown Prince:
Human tribute, including servants, eunuchs, and virgin girls came from: China's various ethnic tribes, Mongolia, Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Central Asia, Siam, Champa, and Okinawa.[21] During the early Ming period, Korean concubines and eunuchs were occasionally demanded as tribute by Ming Emperors,[22][23][24][26] such as the Xuande Emperor,[25] for the imperial harem in imitation of the previous dynasty's precedent,[26] as were Vietnamese women and eunuchs.[27][28] Joseon Korea stopped sending human tribute after 1435.[26] A total of 198 eunuchs were sent from Korea to Ming.[29] In total, 16 virgin girls (accompanied by 48 female attendants), 42 cooks (執饌女), and 8 musical performers (歌舞女) were sent from Korea to Ming in a total of 7 missions.[30][31] There were Korean, Jurchen, Mongol, Central Asian, and Vietnamese eunuchs under the Yongle Emperor,[32][33] including Mongol eunuchs who served him while he was the Prince of Yan.[34] Muslim and Mongol eunuchs were present in the Ming court,[35] including Zheng He.[36] Muslim eunuchs were sent as ambassadors to the Timurids.[37][38] Vietnamese eunuchs like Ruan Lang, Ruan An, Fan Hong, Chen Wu, and Wang Jin were sent by Zhang Fu to the Ming.[39] During Ming's early contentious relations with Joseon, when there were disputes such as competition for influence over the Jurchens in Manchuria, Korean officials were even flogged by Korean-born Ming eunuch ambassadors when their demands were not met.[40] Some of the ambassadors were arrogant, such as Sin Kwi-saeng who, in 1398, got drunk and brandished a knife at a dinner in the presence of the king.[41][42] Sino-Korean relations later became amiable, and Korean envoys' seating arrangement in the Ming court was always the highest among the tributaries.[40] Zhu Shuang (Prince of Qin) had some boys castrated and women seized after a war against minority Tibetic peoples and as a result was reprimanded.[43][44][45][46]On 30 January 1406, the Ming Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs in order to give them to Yongle. Yongle said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and didn't deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again.[47] An anti pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Zhengde emperor adopted Islam due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color.[48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56] Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque. Central Asian women were provided to the Zhengde Emperor by a Muslim guard and Sayyid Hussein from Hami.[57] The guard was Yu Yung and the women were Uighur.[58] It is unknown who really was behind the anti-pig slaughter edict.[59] The speculation of him becoming a Muslim is remembered alongside his excessive and debauched behavior along with his concubines of foreign origin.[60] Muslim Central Asian girls were favored by Zhengde like how Korean girls were favored by Xuande.[61] A Uighur concubine was kept by Zhengde.[62] Foreign origin Uighur and Mongol women were favored by the Zhengde emperor.[63] There was much speculation that the Yongle Emperor's real mother was a Korean[64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72] or Mongolian[73] concubine.[74][75][76] Relations between Ming China and Joseon Korea improved dramatically and became much more amicable and mutually profitable during Yongle's reign, who also had a strong penchant for Korean cuisine and women,[68] as did his grandson, the Xuande Emperor.[77][78] There were 100,000 eunuchs at the height of their numbers during the Ming.[79][80][81][82] QingThe system was among one of the simpler systems in Chinese history. Officially, there were eight classes:
There were limits placed on how many consorts could hold the ranks of Concubine (嬪; pín), and above.
Consorts that attained the rank of Concubine (嫔) and above would be honoured with a residence in the main section (and hence manager) of a palace in the Forbidden City, and be able to self-title themselves as “本宫 (ben gong)” (literally, "This Palace") when addressing those below them. When being addressed by lower ranked concubines, they would have to be addressed as "娘娘 (niang niang)" (ma'am). All people were expected to use deprecating self-titles when addressing higher ranks, and concubines were no different. They either used "嫔妾 （pin qie)" or "臣妾 (chen qie)". If the Emperor of a consort has died, they were self-titled as “哀家 (ai jia)" (literally, "Grieving House"). For an Empress who lived well into the reigns of at least two subsequent Emperors, she would be referred to as Empress Dowager (皇太后; huáng tài hòu) if her husband's son was the Emperor, or Grand Empress Dowager (太皇太后; tài huáng tài hòu) if her husband's grandson was the Emperor. If a consort was never an Empress during her husband's reign but her son became the next Emperor, she would be referred to as Holy Mother, Empress Dowager (聖母皇太后; shèng mǔ huáng tài hòu) and be posthumously honoured as an Empress. On the other hand, if a consort held the rank of Empress but had no son or her son does not succeed the throne, she would be honoured as Mother Empress, Empress Dowager (母后皇太后; mǔ hòu huáng tài hòu) and is officially honoured as an Empress. The prefix for Dowager (太）was added to a consort's rank (Imperial Noble Consort and below) if she was a consort of the reigning emperor's father. All consorts of the previous emperor usually resided within one palace, with the exception of those who attained the rank of Empress Dowager, who would be honoured with their own palace. The system was solid, but the number of consorts an emperor actually had during the Qing dynasty was subject to wild variations. The Kangxi Emperor holds the record for having the most consorts with 79, while the Guangxu Emperor holds the record for having the fewest consorts, with one empress and two consorts – a total of just three consorts. The tradition of ranking concubines ended when the Qing dynasty was overthrown. However, the practice of giving rank to people who "unofficially" (lives with, but never marry) have more than one wife is still widespread. In addition, the term (夫人; fū rén) is still used, albeit rarely and only in very formal settings, as an honorific title towards another person's wife in China. After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea, the Joseon kingdom was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing prince-regent Dorgon.[83][84][85][86] In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun, a distant relative of the king, who was adopted and given the royal princess title so she can be married off to Dorgon. Joseon court revoked Princess Uisun's title and royal privileges after Dorgon died.[87][88] Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.[89] There is no evidence of Dorgon marrying any other Joseon princess besides Princess Uisun in Joseon records and it is extremely unlikely as Dorgon died in December 1650, only few months after his marriage to Princess Uisun.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}
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Mote|title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&pg=PA283#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=28 January 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-24333-9|pages=283–}} 43. ^[https://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1428JKwdpCs.pdf p, 74-75, 92] 44. ^{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/18786949/1.10_%E8%B7%8B_%E6%98%8E%E7%A7%A6%E5%BA%9C%E6%89%BF%E5%A5%89%E6%AD%A3%E5%BA%B7%E5%85%AC%E5%A2%93%E5%BF%97%E9%93%AD_A_Sogdian_Descendant_Study_of_the_Epitaph_of_Kang_Jing_The_Man_Worked_at_Ming_Prince_Qin_s_Mansion_Collected_Studies_on_Ming_History_%E6%98%8E%E5%8F%B2%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E8%AE%BA%E4%B8%9B_9_2011_283-297|title=4.3 跋《明秦府承奉正康公墓志铭》“A Sogdian Descendant? 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Transl. by David|title=Son of Heaven|date=1995|publisher=Chinese Literature Press|location=Beijing|isbn=9787507102888|page=217 |edition=}} 2 : Chinese imperial consorts|Chinese imperial harem |
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