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词条 Concert of Europe
释义

  1. Overview

  2. Origins

      French Revolution    Holy Alliance    Quadruple Alliance    Differences between the Holy Alliance and the Quadruple Alliance  

  3. Congresses

  4. Collapse by 1823

  5. See also

  6. References

  7. Further reading

  8. External links

{{Infobox historical era
| name = Concert of Europe
| start = 1815 to 1848
| end = 1871 to 1914
| image = Europe 1815 map en.png
| caption = The national boundaries within Europe as set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815.
| before = Napoleonic era
| including = * Regency era
  • Bourbon Restoration
  • Revolutions of 1830
  • Revolutions of 1848
  • Causes of World War I

| after = World War I
| leaders =
}}{{about|the 19th-century diplomatic term| the jazz album| European Concert}}

The Concert of Europe represented the European balance of power from 1815 to 1848 and from 1871 to 1914.

A first phase of the Concert of Europe, known as the Congress System or the Vienna System after the Congress of Vienna (1814-15), was dominated by five Great Powers of Europe: Prussia, Russia, Britain, France and Austria. The more conservative members of the Concert of Europe, who were also members of the Holy Alliance, used this system to oppose revolutionary movements, weaken the forces of nationalism, and uphold the balance of power. Historians date its effective operation from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the early 1820s, although some see it playing a role until the Crimean War (1853–1856).[1]

With the Revolutions of 1848 the Vienna system collapsed and, although the republican rebellions were checked, an age of nationalism began and culminated in the unifications of Italy (by Sardinia) and Germany (by Prussia) in 1871. The German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck re-created the Concert of Europe to avoid future conflicts escalating into new wars. The revitalized concert included France, Britain, Austria, Russia, and Italy with Germany as the main continental power economically and militarily. The Congress of Berlin and the Conference of Berlin promoted the solidification of power in the respective controlled regions as well as imperialism. Ultimately the Concert of Europe split itself into the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente, and World War I broke out in 1914.[2]

Overview

The Concert of Europe was founded by the powers of Austria, Prussia, Russia and the United Kingdom, which were the members of the Quadruple Alliance that defeated Napoleon and his First French Empire. In time, France was established as a fifth member of the Concert, following the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy.

At first, the leading personalities of the system were British foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh, Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich and Tsar Alexander I of Russia. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord of France was largely responsible for quickly returning that country to its place alongside the other major powers in international diplomacy.

The age of the Concert is sometimes known as the Age of Metternich, due to the influence of the Austrian chancellor's conservatism and the dominance of Austria within the German Confederation, or as the European Restoration, because of the reactionary efforts of the Congress of Vienna to restore Europe to its state before the French Revolution. It is known in German as the Pentarchie (pentarchy) and in Russian as the Vienna System (Венская система, Venskaya sistema).

The Concert of Europe had no written rules or permanent institutions, but at times of crisis any of the member countries could propose a conference.[3] Meetings of the Great Powers during this period included Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821), and Verona (1822).

The Concert's effectiveness came to an end because of many factors such as the British distrust of Russia.[4]

Origins

The idea of a European federation had been already raised by figures such as Gottfried Leibniz[5] and Lord Grenville.[6] The Concert of Europe, as developed by Metternich, drew upon their ideas and the notion of a balance of power in international relations, so that the ambitions of each Great Power would be restrained by the others:

The Concert of Europe, as it began to be called at the time, had ... a reality in international law, which derived from the final Act of the Vienna Congress, which stipulated that the boundaries established in 1815 could not be altered without the consent of its eight signatories.[7]

French Revolution

From the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792 to the exile of Napoleon to Saint Helena in 1815, Europe had been almost constantly at war. During this time, the military conquests of France had resulted in the spread of liberalism throughout much of the continent, resulting in many states adopting the Napoleonic code. Largely as a reaction to the radicalism of the French Revolution,{{sfn|Soutou|2000|p=329}} most victorious powers of the Napoleonic Wars resolved to suppress liberalism and nationalism, and revert largely to the status quo of Europe prior to 1789.{{sfn|Soutou|2000|p=330}}

Holy Alliance

The Kingdom of Prussia, and the Austrian and Russian empires, formed the Holy Alliance (26 September 1815) with the expressed intent of preserving Christian social values and traditional monarchism.[8] Every member of the anti-Napoleonic coalition promptly joined the Alliance, except for the United Kingdom, a constitutional monarchy with a more liberal political philosophy. The great powers were now in a system of meeting wherever a problem arose. Britain and France did not send their representatives because they opposed the idea of intervention.

Quadruple Alliance

Britain did however ratify the Quadruple Alliance, signed on the same day as the Second Peace Treaty of Paris (20 November 1815), which became the Quintuple Alliance when France joined in 1818. It was also signed by the same three powers that had signed the Holy Alliance on 26 September 1815.[9]

Differences between the Holy Alliance and the Quadruple Alliance

There has been much debate between historians as to which treaty was more influential in the development of international relations in Europe in the two decades following the end of the Napoleonic Wars. In the opinion of historian Tim Chapman the differences are somewhat academic, as the powers were not bound by the terms of the treaties and many of them intentionally broke the terms if it suited them.{{sfn|Chapman|2006|p=60}}

The Holy Alliance was the brainchild of Tsar Alexander I. It gained a lot of support because most European monarchs did not wish to offend the Tsar by refusing to sign it, and as it bound monarchs personally rather than their governments, it was easy to ignore once signed. Only three notable princes did not sign: Pope Pius VII (it was not Catholic enough), Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire, and the British Prince Regent because his government did not wish to pledge itself to the policing of continental Europe. In the opinion of Lord Castlereagh, the British foreign secretary at the time of its inception, the Holy Alliance was "a piece of sublime mysticism and nonsense".{{sfn|Chapman|2006|p=60}} Although it did not fit comfortably within the complex, sophisticated and cynical web of power politics that epitomised diplomacy of the post-Napoleonic era, its influence was more long lasting than its contemporary critics expected and was revived in the 1820s as a tool of repression when the terms of the Quintuple Alliance were not seen to fit the purposes of some of the Great Powers of Europe.{{sfn|Chapman|2006|p=61}}

The Quadruple Alliance, by contrast, was a standard treaty, and the four Great Powers did not invite any of their allies to sign it. The primary objective was to bind the signatories to support the terms of the Second Treaty of Paris for 20 years. It included a provision for the High Contracting Parties to "renew their meeting at fixed periods...for the purpose of consulting on their common interests" which were the "prosperity of the Nations, and the maintenance of peace in Europe".{{sfn|Chapman|2006|p=62}} A problem with the wording of Article VI of the treaty is that it did not specify what these "fixed periods" were to be and there were no provisions in the treaty for a permanent commission to arrange and organise the conferences. This meant that the first conference in 1818 dealt with remaining issues of the French wars, but after that instead of meeting at "fixed periods" the meetings were arranged on an ad hoc basis, to address specific threats, such as those posed by revolutions, for which the treaty was not drafted.{{sfn|Chapman|2006|pp=61–62}}

Congresses

  • The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) resolved the issues of Allied occupation of France and restored that country to equal status with Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia.
  • The Congress of Troppau (1820) decreed that in the event of revolution a country could be expelled from the European Alliance, and armed intervention could be used to "bring back the guilty state into the bosom of the Great Alliance".
  • The Congress of Laibach (1821)
  • In 1822, the Congress of Verona met to decide whether France could intervene on the side of the Spanish royalists in the Trienio Liberal. After receiving permission, Louis XVIII dispatched five army corps to restore Ferdinand VII of Spain.

Collapse by 1823

The territorial boundaries laid down at the Congress of Vienna were maintained; even more important, there was an acceptance of the theme of balance with no major aggression.[10] Otherwise, the Congress system, says historian Roy Bridge, "failed" by 1823.[11] In 1818, the British decided not to become involved in continental issues that did not directly affect them. They rejected the plan of Alexander I to suppress future revolutions. The Concert system fell apart as the common goals of the Great Powers were replaced by growing political and economic rivalries.[12] Artz says the Congress of Verona in 1822 "marked the end."[13] There was no Congress called to restore the old system during the great revolutionary upheavals of 1848 with their demands for revision of the Congress of Vienna's frontiers along national lines.[14]

Historian Paul Hayes says of British foreign minister George Canning:

{{quote|His most important achievement was the destruction of the system of the neo-Holy Alliance which, if unchallenged, must have dominated Europe. Canning realized it was not enough for Britain to boycott conferences and congresses; it was essential to persuade the Powers that their interests could not be advanced by a system of intervention based upon principles of legitimacy, anti-nationalism and hostility to revolution.[15]}}

See also

  • European balance of power
  • International relations (1814–1919)
  • Balance of power in international relations
  • Great power

References

1. ^{{cite journal|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/div-classtitlethe-concert-of-europe-a-fresh-look-at-an-international-systemdiv/6E95577CB092748E820521BC01F1564A|title=The Concert of Europe: A Fresh Look at an International System|first=Richard B.|last=Elrod|publisher=|journal=World Politics|volume=28|issue=2|pages=159–174|accessdate=16 June 2017|via=Cambridge Core|doi=10.2307/2009888}}
2. ^[https://books.google.it/books?id=6mlO7Fb8o7UC&q=Concert+of+Europe+came+to+an+end+in+1914&dq=Concert+of+Europe+came+to+an+end+in+1914&hl=it&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwihgr2toNLgAhUxyKYKHbHuBJYQ6AEIODAD]
3. ^{{cite book|last=Stevenson|first=David|title=1914 – 1918: The History of the First World War|year=2004|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-026817-1|pages=4 |ref=harv}}
4. ^{{cite book|author=Guy Arnold|title=Historical Dictionary of the Crimean War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UreS--MoD0C&pg=PA65|year=2002|page=65}}
5. ^{{cite book |last=Loemker |first=Leroy |year=1969 |origyear=1956 |title=Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and Letters |publisher=Reidel |page=58, fn 9}}
6. ^{{cite journal |first=John M. |last=Sherwig |title=Lord Grenville's Plan for a Concert of Europe, 1797–99. |journal=The Journal of Modern History |volume=34 |number=3 |date=September 1962 |pages=284–293 |doi=10.1086/239117}}
7. ^{{cite journal |first=Georges-Henri |last=Soutou |title=Was There a European Order in the Twentieth Century? From the Concert of Europe to the End of the Cold War |journal=Contemporary European History |volume=9 |number=3 |series=Theme Issue: Reflections on the Twentieth Century |date=November 2000 |pages=330 |ref=harv}}
8. ^{{Cite CE1913|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07398a.htm |title=Spahn, M. (1910). Holy Alliance |date=1 June 1910 |accessdate=2011-05-21}}
9. ^{{cite book |last=Chapman |first=Tim |year=2006 |title=The Congress of Vienna 1814–1815 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134680504 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn0G5na-1j0C&lpg=PA60&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q&f=false 60] |ref=harv}}
10. ^Gordon Craig, "The System of Alliances and the Balance of Power." in J.P.T. Bury, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 10: The Zenith of European Power, 1830–70 (1960) p 266.
11. ^Roy Bridge, "Allied Diplomacy in Peacetime: The Failure of the Congress 'System,' 1815–23" in Alan Sked, ed., Europe's Balance of Power, 1815–1848 (1979), pp 34–53
12. ^C.W. Crawley, "International Relations, 1815–1830" in C.W. Crawley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 9, War and Peace in an Age of Upheaval, 1793–1830. Vol. 9 (1965) pp 669–71, 676–77, 683–86.
13. ^Frederick B. Artz, Reaction & Revolution: 1814–1832 (1934) p 170.
14. ^Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics: 1763–1848 (1996) p 800.
15. ^ Paul Hayes, Modern British Foreign Policy: The 19th Century 1814–80 (A&C Black, 1975) p 89

Further reading

  • Bridge, Roy, "Allied Diplomacy in Peacetime: The Failure of the Congress 'System,' 1815–23" in Alan Sked, ed., Europe's Balance of Power, 1815–1848 (1979), pp 34–53.
  • {{cite book|last=Ghervas|first=Stella|title=Réinventer la tradition. Alexandre Stourdza et l'Europe de la Sainte-Alliance|publisher=Honoré Champion|year=2008|location=Paris|isbn=978-2-7453-1669-1}}
  • {{cite book|last=Jarrett|first=Mark|title=The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon|publisher=I. B. Tauris & Company, Ltd.|year=2013|location=London|isbn=978-1780761169}}

External links

  • Concert of Europe
{{DEFAULTSORT:Concert Of Europe}}Metternichov absolutizem

9 : Diplomacy|History of international relations|International organisations of Europe|Modern Europe|Post-Napoleonic congresses|19th-century diplomatic conferences|19th century in Europe|20th-century diplomatic conferences|20th century in Europe

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