“Kalami language”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

词条

Kalami language

释义

Classification
Geographic distribution
Phonology
Vowels Consonants Tone
Grammar
Syntax Morphology
See also
References
Further reading
External links

{{Redirect-distinguish2|Gawri|Gauri, Gavri, the Gawari language of India, or the Gawar-Bati language of Chitral}}{{Infobox language
|name=Kalami
|altname=Bashkarik
|nativename=Kohistani
|region=Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
|speakers=100,000
|date=2004
|ref=e18
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=Indo-Iranian
|fam3=Indo-Aryan
|fam4=Dardic
|fam5=Kohistani
|iso3=gwc
|glotto=kala1373
|glottorefname=Kalami
|lingua=59-AAC-c
|script=Arabic script
|notice=IPA
}}

Kalami (کالامي), also known as Gawri (ګاوری), Garwi, or Bashkarik, is a Dardic language spoken in Swat Kohistan (also called Kalam) region in the upper Swat District and in the upper Panjkora river valley of Upper Dir District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

Classification

According to its genealogical classification (Strand, 1973:302 and 2004), Kalami belongs to the Kohistani subgroup of the north-western zone of Indo-Aryan languages, along with several closely related languages in its geographical vicinity: Torwali (in Swat south of Kalam), Indus Kohistani, Bateri, Chilisso, and Gawro (the latter four east of Kalam in Indus Kohistan). Together with a range of other north-western Indo-Aryan mountain languages, these languages are sometimes collectively referred to as ‘Dardic’ languages.^[1]

Geographic distribution

Kalam Kohistani (also called Gawri) is one of about thirty languages that are spoken in the mountain areas of northern Pakistan. Kohistan is a Persian word that means ‘land of mountains’ and Kohistani can be translated as ‘mountain language’. As a matter of fact, there are several distinct languages in the area that are all popularly called Kohistani. The language under study in this paper is spoken in the upper parts of the valley of the Swat River, in the

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. The name of the principal village of this area is Kalam, and hence the area is known as Kalam Kohistan. In the older linguistic literature, the language of Kalam Kohistan is referred to as Bashkarik (Morgenstierne, 1940), or as Garwi or Gawri (Grierson, 1919; Barth & Morgenstierne, 1958). These names are hardly, if at all, known to the speakers of the language themselves, who normally just call their language Kohistani. However, very recently a number of intellectuals belonging to a local cultural society have started to call their language Gawri, a name that has old historical roots.

The same language is also spoken across the mountains to the West of Kalam Kohistan, in the upper reaches of the Panjkora river valley of Upper Dir District. When added together, the two Kalam-Kohistani-speaking communities comprised over 200,000 people.

Phonology

Vowels

Front	Back
Close	i}}	u}}
Mid	e}}	o}}
Open	a}}	ɑ}}

Length ({{IPA|/ː/}}) and nasalization ({{IPA|/ ̃/}}) are probably contrastive for all vowels.

Consonants

		Labial	Dental	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Uvular
Nasal		m}}	n}}	ɳ}}	ŋ}}
Stop	voiceless	p}}	t}}	ʈ}}	k}}	(q)}}
	voiced	b}}	d}}	ɖ}}	ɡ}}
	aspirated	pʰ}}	tʰ}}	ʈʰ}}	kʰ}}
Affricate	plain	ts}}	tʂ}}	tʃ}}
	aspirated	tsʰ}}	tʂʰ}}	tʃʰ}}
	voiced	dʒ}}
Fricative	voiceless	(f)}}	s}}	ʂ}}	ʃ}}	x}}	h}}
Fricative	voiced	z}}	ɣ}}
Lateral	voiceless	ɬ}}
Lateral	voiced	l}}
Approximant		j}}	w}}
Flap		ɾ}}	ɽ}}

{{IPA|/q f z x ɣ/}} occur mainly in loanwords. {{IPA|/q f/}} tend to be replaced by {{IPA|/x p/}}, respectively.

After the front vowels {{IPA|/i e a/}}, the velars {{IPA|/k ɡ ŋ/}} are palatalized: {{IPA|[kʲ ɡʲ ŋʲ]}}.

Tone

Kalami has 5 contrastive tones: high level, high falling, delayed high falling, low level, low rising.

Grammar

Syntax

The default sentence order is SOV, but this can be changed for emphasis.

Morphology

Approximately 50% of Kalami words can not be broken down to smaller morphological forms. Of the other half, most words are made up of about two to three morphemes. This language implements many modifications to the stem as opposed to using distinct morpheme additions. For example, many plural words are formed by changing the stem of words as opposed to modifying with a plural morpheme.^[2]

Word	Meaning
masc. sg.	yant	‘is coming’
masc. pl.	yänt	'are coming’
fem.	yent	‘is coming, are coming’

Words can also be modified by suffixes and prefixes.

Word	Meaning
gā	‘went’
gāt	'has gone’
gās̆	‘had gone’

References

1. ^Tone and song in Kalam Kohistani {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070305170948/http://lotos.library.uu.nl/publish/articles/000102/bookpart.pdf |date=2007-03-05 }}
2. ^Baart, J. L. (1999). A sketch of Kalam Kohistani grammar. Studies in Languages of Northern Pakistan. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies Quaid-i-Azam University.

External links

Gawri Community Development Programme, contains various materials in and about the language
[https://web.archive.org/web/20091027113559/http://geocities.com/kcs_kalam/gawripaper.html The Gawri Language of Kalam and Dir Kohistan]
[https://web.archive.org/web/20070305170948/http://lotos.library.uu.nl/publish/articles/000102/bookpart.pdf Tone and song in Kalam Kohistani]
[https://www.academia.edu/1992272/A_Sketch_of_Kalam_Kohistani_grammar A Sketch of Kalam Kohistani Grammar]
[https://www.academia.edu/2329715/Names_of_Plants_in_Kalam_Kohistani_Pakistan_ Names of Plants in Kalam Kohistani (Pakistan)]
[https://www.academia.edu/2900061/The_Gawri_Language_of_Kalam_and_Dir_Kohistan_with_Muhammad_Zaman_Sagar_ The Gawri Language of Kalam and Dir Kohistani]
[https://www.academia.edu/2022232/Kalam_Kohistani_Texts_compiled_by_Joan_L.G._Baart_and_Muhammad_Zaman_Sagar Kalam Kohistani Texts]
Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh
LAPSyD Online page for Kalami
SOCIOLINGUISTIC SURVEY OF NORTHERN PAKISTAN
Endangered Languages Project

2 : Dardic languages|Languages of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

随便看

开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。