“Crimea”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Crimea ({{IPAc-en|k|r|aɪ|ˈ|m|iː|ə}}; {{lang-ru|Крым}}; {{lang-uk|Крим}}, Krym; {{lang-crh|Къырым|translit=Kirim/Qırım}}; {{lang-grc|Κιμμερία/Ταυρική|translit=Kimmería/Taurikḗ}}) is a peninsula on the northern coast of the Black Sea in Eastern Europe that is almost completely surrounded by both the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov to the northeast. It is located south of the Ukrainian region of Kherson, to which it is connected by the Isthmus of Perekop, and west of the Russian region of Kuban, from which it is separated by the Strait of Kerch though linked by the Crimean Bridge. The Arabat Spit is located to the northeast, a narrow strip of land that separates a system of lagoons named Sivash from the Sea of Azov. Across the Black Sea to its west is Romania and to its south Turkey.

Crimea (or Tauric Peninsula, as it was called from antiquity until the early modern period) has historically been at the boundary between the classical world and the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Its southern fringe was colonised by the Greeks, the Persians, the Romans, the Byzantine Empire, the Crimean Goths, the Genoese and the Ottoman Empire, while at the same time its interior was occupied by a changing cast of invading steppe nomads and empires, such as the Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Goths, Alans, Bulgars, Huns, Khazars, Kipchaks, Mongols and the Golden Horde. Crimea and adjacent territories were united in the Crimean Khanate during the 15th to 18th century.

In 1783, Crimea became a part of the Russian Empire as the result of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Crimea became an autonomous republic within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in the USSR. During World War II, Crimea was downgraded to the Crimean Oblast after its entire indigenous population, the Crimean Tatars, were deported to Central Asia, an act recognized as a genocide. In 1954, it was transferred to the Ukrainian SSR from the Russian SFSR.^[6]

With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Ukraine was formed as an independent state in 1991 and most of the peninsula was reorganized as the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, while the city of Sevastopol retained its special status within Ukraine. The 1997 Partition Treaty on the Status and Conditions of the Black Sea Fleet partitioned the former Soviet Black Sea Fleet and allowed Russia to continue basing its fleet in Crimea: both the Ukrainian Naval Forces and Russian's Black Sea Fleet were to be headquartered in Sevastopol. Ukraine extended Russia's lease of the naval facilities under the 2010 Kharkiv Pact in exchange for further discounted natural gas.

In February 2014, following the 2014 Ukrainian revolution that ousted the Ukrainian President, Viktor Yanukovych, pro-Russian separatists and Russian Armed Forces took over the territory.^[7] A controversial Crimea-wide referendum, unconstitutional under the Ukrainian and Crimean constitutions,^[8]^[9]^[10] was held on the issue of reunification with Russia which official results indicated was supported by a large majority of Crimeans.^[11]^[12] Russia formally annexed Crimea on 18 March 2014, incorporating the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol as the 84th and 85th federal subjects of Russia.^[13]

Name

The classical name Tauris or Taurica is from the Greek Ταυρική (Taurikḗ), after the peninsula's Scytho-Cimmerian inhabitants, the Tauri.

Strabo (Geography vii 4.3, xi. 2.5), Polybius, (Histories 4.39.4), and Ptolemy (Geographia. II, v 9.5) refer variously to the Strait of Kerch as the Κιμμερικὸς Βόσπορος (Kimmerikos Bosporos, romanized spelling, Bosporus Cimmerius), its easternmost part as the Κιμμέριον Ἄκρον (Kimmerion Akron, Roman name: Promontorium Cimmerium^[14], as well as to the city of Cimmerium and whence the name of the Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus (Κιμμερικοῦ Βοσπόρου).

The earliest recorded use of the toponym “Crimea” for the peninsula^[15] occurred between 1315-1329 AD by the Arab writer Abū al-Fidā where he recounts a political fight in 1300-1301 AD resulting in a rival's decapitation and having “sent his head to the Crimea”.^[16]

The Crimean Tatar name of the peninsula is Qırım ({{lang-crh|Къырым|translit=Kirim/Qırım}}) and so also for the city of Krym which is now called Stary Krym^[17] which served as a capital of the Crimean province of the Golden Horde. Some sources hold that the name of the capital was extended to the entire peninsula at some point during Ottoman suzerainty.^[18]

The origin of the word Qırım is uncertain. Suggestions argued in various sources include:

Other suggestions either unsupported or contradicted by sources, apparently based on similarity in sound, include:

The name "Crimea" is the Italian form, i.e., la Crimea, since at least the 17th century^[29] and the "Crimean peninsula" becomes current during the 18th century, gradually replacing the classical name of Tauric Peninsula in the course of the 19th century.^[30] In English usage since the early modern period the Crimean Khanate is referred to as Crim Tartary.^[31] The omission of the definite article in English ("Crimea" rather than "the Crimea") became common during the later 20th century.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

The classical name was used in 1802 in the name of the Russian Taurida Governorate.^[32] While it was replaced with Krym ({{lang-uk|Крим}}; {{lang-ru|Крым}}) in the Soviet Union and has had no official status since 1921, it is still used by some institutions in Crimea, such as the Taurida National University, the Tavriya Simferopol football club, or the Tavrida federal highway.

History

Ancient history

In the 8th century BC the Cimmerians migrated to the area in retreat from Scythian advances, of whom the latter also migrated to the region. Contemporaneously, and possibly because of the migration, the region came within the sphere of Greek maritime interest and became the site of Greek colonies. The most important Greek city was Chersonesos at the edge of today's Sevastopol.

The Persian Achaemenid Empire, under Darius I, expanded to Crimea as part of his campaigns against the Scythians in 513 BC.

The peninsula, then under the control of the Bosporan Kingdom, later became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire in 63 BC.

Medieval history

In the 9th century CE, Byzantium established the Theme of Cherson to defend against incursions by the Rus' Khaganate. The Crimean peninsula from this time was contested between Byzantium, Rus' and Khazaria. The area remained the site of overlapping interests and contact between the early medieval Slavic, Turkic and Greek spheres. It became a center of slave trade. Slavs were sold to Byzantium and other places in Anatolia and the Middle-East during this period.

Mongol Conquest (1238-1449)

Trapezuntine Perateia had already been subjected to pressure from the Genoese and Kipchaks by the time Alexios I of Trebizond died in 1222 before the Mongol invasions began its western swept through Volga Bulgaria in 1223. With them, control of the peninsula changed in 1238, as all but the Perateia of Crimea was incorporated into the territory of the Golden Horde throughout the 14th century CE. In the course of the 13th century CE, portions were controlled by the Republic of Venice and by the Republic of Genoa, the Perateia soon became the Principality of Theodoro and Genoese Gazaria, respectively.

Crimean Khanate (1449–1783)

The Crimean Khanate, a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, succeeded the Golden Horde and lasted from 1449 to 1783.^[33] In 1571, the Crimean Tatars attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin.^[34] Until the late 18th century, Crimean Tatars maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Ukraine over the period 1500–1700.^[35]

Russian Empire (1783–1917)

In 1774, the Khanate was proclaimed independent under the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca with the Ottomans,^[36] but was then conquered by the Russian Empire in 1783.^[37]^[38]

The Taurida Oblast was created by a decree of Catherine the Great on 2 February 1784. The center of the oblast was first in Karasubazar but was moved to Simferopol later in 1784. The establishment decree divided the oblast into 7 uyezds. However, by a decree of Paul I on 12 December 1796, the oblast was abolished and the territory, divided into 2 uyezds (Akmechetsky [Акмечетский] and Perekopsky [Перекопский]) was attached to the second incarnation of the Novorossiysk Governorate.

From 1853 to 1856, the peninsula was the site of the principal engagements of the Crimean War, a conflict fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire and Sardinia.^[39]

Russian Civil War (1917–1921)

Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, the military and political situation in Crimea was chaotic like that in much of Russia. During the ensuing Russian Civil War, Crimea changed hands numerous times and was for a time a stronghold of the anti-Bolshevik White Army. The White Army controlled Crimea before remnants were finally driven out by the Red Army in November 1920. It was in Crimea that the White Russians led by General Wrangel made their last stand against Nestor Makhno and the Red Army. When resistance was crushed, many of the anti-Communist fighters and civilians escaped by ship to Istanbul. Between 56,000 and 150,000 of the Whites were murdered as part of the Red Terror, organized by Béla Kun.

Soviet Union (1921–1991)

Crimea became part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1921 as the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, which became part of the Soviet Union in 1922.

Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1921–1954)

During the Second World War the peninsula was invaded by Nazi Germany and Romanian troops in summer 1941 across the Isthmus of Perekop. Following the capture of Sevastopol on 4 July 1942, Crimea was occupied until German and Romanian forces were expelled in an offensive by Soviet forces ending in May 1944. The Nazis murdered around 40,000 Crimean Jews.^[40] On 25 June 1946, it was downgraded to the Crimean Oblast, and the Crimean Tatars were deported for alleged collaboration with the Nazi forces. A total of more than 230,000 people – about a fifth of the total population of the Crimean Peninsula at that time – were deported, mainly to Uzbekistan. 14,300 Greeks, 12,075 Bulgarians, and about 10,000 Armenians were also expelled.

Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1954–1991)

On 19 February 1954, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR issued a decree on the transfer of the Crimean region of the RSFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.^[41] This Supreme Soviet Decree states that this transfer was motivated by "the commonality of the economy, the proximity, and close economic and cultural relations between the Crimean region and the Ukrainian SSR".^[42] At that time no vote or referendum took place, and Crimean population had no say in the transfer (also typical of other Soviet border changes). After the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, doubts have been expressed - from the Russian side by all means, but even by Western historians (Richard Sakwa, "Frontline Ukraine. Crisis In the Borderlands", 2015) - about the very legitimacy of the 1954 transition of Crimea to Ukraine; in the critics' view the transition contradicted even the Soviet law.

In post-war years, Crimea thrived as a tourist destination, with new attractions and sanatoriums for tourists. Tourists came from all around the Soviet Union and neighbouring countries, particularly from the German Democratic Republic.^[43] In time the peninsula also became a major tourist destination for cruises originating in Greece and Turkey. Crimea's infrastructure and manufacturing also developed, particularly around the sea ports at Kerch and Sevastopol and in the oblast's landlocked capital, Simferopol. Populations of Ukrainians and Russians alike doubled, with more than 1.6 million Russians and 626,000 Ukrainians living on the peninsula by 1989.^[43]

Ukrainian Republic (1991–2014)

In January 1991, a referendum was held in the Crimean Oblast, and voters approved restoring the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. However, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union less than a year later, the Autonomous Republic of Crimea was formed as a constituent entity of independent Ukraine,^[44]^[45] with a slight majority of Crimean voters approving Ukrainian independence in a December referendum.^[46] On 5 May 1992, the Crimean legislature declared conditional independence,^[47] but a referendum to confirm the decision was never held amid opposition from Kiev: elected president of Crimea Yuriy Meshkov, was replaced by Kiev appointed Anatoliy Franchuk, which was done with the intent to rein in Crimean aspirations of autonomy.^[45]^[48] The Verkhovna Rada voted to grant Crimea "extensive home rule" during the dispute.^[46]^[47]

The last election of the Verkhovna Rada of Crimea, the parliament of Crimea, took place on 31 October 2010 and was won by the Party of Regions.^[50] On 15 March 2014, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine officially dissolved the Verkhovna Rada of Crimea, and, on 17 March 2014, one day before the Russian annexation of Crimea,^[51] the State Council of Crimea was established in place of the Verkhovna Rada of Crimea.

Russian Federation (de facto, since 2014)

After the 2014 Ukrainian revolution and the flight of Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych from Kiev on 21 February 2014, Russian President, Vladimir Putin stated to colleagues that "we must start working on returning Crimea to Russia."^[52] Within days, unmarked forces with local militias took over the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol, as well as occupying several localities in Kherson Oblast on the Arabat Spit, which is geographically a part of Crimea. Following a controversial referendum, the official results of which showed majority support for joining Russia, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a treaty of accession with the self-declared Republic of Crimea, annexing it into the Russian Federation as two federal subjects: the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol. Though Russia had control over the peninsula, sovereignty was disputed as Ukraine and the majority of the international community consider the annexation illegal,^[53] as was shown by the United Nations General Assembly adopting a non-binding resolution calling upon states not to recognise changes to the integrity of Ukraine.^[54]^[55] A range of international sanctions have remained in place against Russia and a number of named individuals as a result of the events of 2014.

Russia withdrew its forces from southern Kherson in December 2014^[56] Since Russian control over Crimea was established in 2014, the peninsula has been administered as part of the Russian Federation except for the northern areas of the Arabat Spit and the Syvash which are still controlled by Ukraine.^[57]

Within days of the signing of the accession treaty, the process of integrating Crimea into the Russian federation began: in March the Russian ruble went into official circulation^[58] and clocks were moved forward to Moscow time,^[59] in April a new revision of the Russian Constitution was officially released with the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol included in the list of federal subjects of the Russian Federation,^[60] and in June the Russian ruble became the only form of legal tender.^[61] In July 2015, Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev stated that Crimea had been fully integrated into Russia.^[62]

Since 2014 the Russian government has invested heavily in the peninsula’s infrastructure—repairing roads, modernizing hospitals and building the Crimean Bridge that links the peninsula to the Russian mainland. New sources of water are trying to be developed, with huge difficulties, to replace closed Ukrainian sources.^[63]

Russia provides electricity to Crimea via a cable beneath the Kerch Strait. In June 2018 there was a full electrical outage for all of Crimea, but the power grid company Rosseti reported to have fixed the outage in approximately one hour.^[65]

On 28 December 2018, Russia completed a high-tech security fence marking the de facto border between Crimea and Ukraine.^[66]

Languages

According to Article 10 of the Constitution of the Republic of Crimea, there are three official languages in the republic: Russian, Ukrainian and Crimean Tatar. However, in practice, Russian is by far the main language.

The history of Crimea is complex as it lies at a conjunction of European and Asian peoples, with a mosaic of distinct and affiliated ethnic communities. From the ancient period to the medieval period, the principal ethnic communities classed by linguistic origins are:

The Turkic language family comprising the Bulgars, Khazars, Kipchaks, Tatars, Turkicized Greeks (Urums), and the Ottomans

From the medieval period to the early modern period{{cn|date=June 2018}} additional ethnic communities migrated to the area, prominent representation includes the Armenian, German, Serbian, and Jewish ethnic communities.

Geography

Covering an area of {{convert|27000|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, Crimea is located on the northern coast of the Black Sea and on the western coast of the Sea of Azov, the only land border is shared with Ukraine's Kherson Oblast from the north. Crimea is almost an island and only connected to the continent by the Isthmus of Perekop, a strip of land about {{convert|5|–|7|km|mi|1}} wide.

The natural border between the Crimean Peninsula and the Ukrainian mainland is formed by the Sivash or "Rotten Sea", a large system of shallow lagoons between Russia by Kerch Strait. Beside isthmus of Perekop, the peninsula is connected to the Kherson Oblast's Henichesk Raion bridges over the narrow Chonhar and Henichesk straits and Kerch Strait to the Krasnodar Krai. The northern part of Arabat Spit is administratively part of Henichesk Raion in Kherson Oblast, including its two rural communities of Shchaslyvtseve and Strilkove. The eastern tip of the peninsula is the Kerch Peninsula, separated from Taman Peninsula on the Russian mainland by the Kerch Strait, which connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Azov, at a width of between {{convert|3|–|13|km|mi|1}}.

Geographically, the peninsula is generally divided into three zones: steppe, mountains and southern coast.

Places

Given its long history and many conquerors, most towns in Crimea have several names.

West: The Isthmus of Perekop /Perekop/Or Qapi is about 7 km wide and connects Crimea to the mainland. It was often fortified and sometimes garrisoned by the Turks. The North Crimean Canal now crosses it to bring water from the Dnieper. To the west Karkinit Bay separates the Tarkhankut Peninsula from the mainland. On the north side of the peninsula is Chernomorskoe/Kalos Limen. On the south side is the large Donuzlav Bay and the port and ancient Greek settlement of Eupatoria/Yevpatoria/Kerkinitis/Gozleve. The coast then runs south to Sevastopol/Chersonesus, a good natural harbor, great naval base and the largest city on the peninsula. At the head of Sevastopol Bay is Inkermann/Kalamita. South of Sevastopol is the small Heracles Peninsula.

South: In the south, between the Crimean Mountains and the sea is a narrow coastal strip which was held by the Genoese and after 1475 by the Turks. Under Russian rule it became a kind of riviera. In Soviet times the many palaces were replaced by dachas and health resorts. From west to east are: Heracles Peninsula; Balaklava/Symbalon/Cembalo, a smaller natural harbor south of Sevastopol; Foros, the southernmost point; Alupka with the Vorontsov Palace (Alupka); Gaspra; Yalta; Gurzuf; Alushta. Further east is Sudak/Sougdia/Soldaia with its Genoese fort. Further east is Kaffa/Theodosia/Feodosia which was once a great slave mart and a kind of capital for the Genoese and Turks. Unlike he other southern ports, there are no mountains to the north. At the east end of the 90km Kerch Peninsula is Kerch/Panticapaeum, once the capital of the Bosporian Kingdom. Just south of Kerch is the new Crimean Bridge which connects Crimea to the Taman Peninsula.

Sea of Azov: There is little on the south shore. The west shore is marked by the Arabat Spit. Behind it is the Syvash or "Putrid Sea", a system of lakes and marshes which in the far north extend west to the Perekop Isthmus. The northern part of Syvash is now crossed by road and rail bridges.

Interior: Most of the former capitals were on the north side of the mountains. Mangup/Doros (Gothic, Theodoro). Bakhchisarai (1532-1783).

Southeast of Bakhchisarai is the cliff-fort of Chufut-Kale/Qirq Or which was used in more warlike times. Simferopol/Ak-Mechet, the modern capital. Karasu-Bazar/Bilohorsk was a commercial center. Solkhat/Stary Krym was the old Tatar capital. Towns on the northern steppe area are all modern, notably Dzhankoy, a major road and rail junction.

Rivers: The longest is the Salhir River which rises southeast of Simferopol and flows north and northeast to the Sea of Azov. The Alma River flows west to reach the Black Sea between Eupatoria and Sevastopol. The shorther Chornaya River (Crimea) flows west to Sevastopol Bay.

Crimean Mountains

The southeast coast is flanked at a distance of {{convert|8|–|12|km|mi|1}} from the sea by a parallel range of mountains, the Crimean Mountains.^[67] These mountains are backed by secondary parallel ranges.

The main range of these mountains shoots up with extraordinary abruptness from the deep floor of the Black Sea to an altitude of {{convert|600|–|1545|m|ft|0}}, beginning at the southwest point of the peninsula, called Cape Fiolente. It was believed that this cape was supposedly crowned with the temple of Artemis, where Iphigeneia is said to have officiated as priestess.^[68]

Hydrography

There are 257 rivers and major streams on the Crimean peninsula which are primarily fed by rainwater, with snowmelt playing a very minor role. This means there is significant annual fluctuation in water flow with many streams drying up completely during the summer.^[70] The largest rivers are the Salhir (Salğır, Салгир), the Kacha (Кача), the Alma (Альма), and the Belbek (Бельбек). Also important are the Kokozka (Kökköz or Коккозка), the Indole (Indol or Индо́л), the Chorna (Çorğun, Chernaya or Чёрная), the Derekoika (Dereköy or Дерекойка),^[71] the Karasu-Bashi (Biyuk-Karasu or Биюк-Карасу) (tributary of Salhir river), the Burulcha (Бурульча) (tributary of Salhir river), the Uchan-su, and the Ulu-Uzen'. The longest river of Crimea is the Salhir at 204 km. The Belbek has the greatest average discharge at {{convert|2.16|m3/s|ft3/s}}.^[72] The Alma and the Kacha are the second and third longest rivers.^[73]

There are more than fifty salt lakes and salt pans on the peninsula, the largest of them is Lake Sasyk (Сасык) on the southwest coast, but others include Aqtas, Koyashskoye, Kiyatskoe, Kirleutskoe, Kizil-Yar, Bakalskoe, and Donuzlav.^[74]^[75] The general trend is for the former lakes to become salt pans.^[76] Lake Syvash (Sıvaş or Сива́ш) is a system of interconnected shallow lagoons on the northern coast, which covers an area of around 2,560 km2. There are a number of dams that have created reservoirs, among the largest are the Simferopolskoye, Alminskoye,^[77] the Taygansky and the Belogorsky just south of Bilohirsk in Bilohirsk Raion.^[78] The North Crimea Canal, which transports water from the Dnieper, is the largest of the man-made irrigation channels on the peninsula.^[79]

Steppe

Seventy-five percent of the remaining area of Crimea consists of semiarid prairie lands, a southward continuation of the Pontic-Caspian steppe, which slope gently to the northwest from the foot of the Crimean Mountains.

Numerous kurgans, or burial mounds, of the ancient Scythians are scattered across the Crimean steppes.

Crimean Riviera

The terrain that lies beyond the sheltering Crimean Mountain range is of an altogether different character. Here, the narrow strip of coast and the slopes of the mountains are smothered with greenery. This "riviera" stretches along the southeast coast from capes Fiolente and Aya, in the south, to Feodosiya, and is studded with summer sea-bathing resorts such as Alupka, Yalta, Gurzuf, Alushta, Sudak, and Feodosiya. During the years of Soviet rule, the resorts and dachas of this coast served as the prime perquisites of the politically loyal.{{Citation needed|date=December 2012}}^{why here? and ref?} In addition, vineyards and fruit orchards are located in the region. Fishing, mining, and the production of essential oils are also important. Numerous Crimean Tatar villages, mosques, monasteries, and palaces of the Russian imperial family and nobles are found here, as well as picturesque ancient Greek and medieval castles.

The Crimean Mountains and the southern coast are part of the Crimean Submediterranean forest complex ecoregion. The natural vegetation consists of scrublands, woodlands, and forests, with a climate and vegetation similar to the Mediterranean Basin.

Climate

Crimea is located between the temperate and subtropical climate belts and is characterized by warm and sunny weather.^[80] It is characterized by the diversity and presence of microclimates.^[80] The northern parts of Crimea have a moderate continental climate with short, mild winters and moderately hot dry summers.^[81] In the central and mountainous areas, the climate is transitional between the continental climate to the north and the Mediterranean climate to the south.^[81] Winters are mild at lower altitudes (in the foothills) and colder at higher altitdues.^[81] Summers are hot at lower altitudes and warm in the mountains.^[81] A subtropical, Mediterranean climate is found in the southern coastal regions, and is characterized by mild winters and moderately hot, dry summers.^[81]

The climate of Crimea is influenced by its geographic location, relief, and influences from the Black sea.^[80] The Crimean coast is shielded from cold air masses coming from north and as a result has milder winters.^[80] Maritime influences from the Black Sea are restricted to coastal areas; inside the peninsula, the influence is weak and does not play an important role.^[80] Because a high pressure system is located north of Crimea in both summer and winter, winds predominantly come from the north and northeast year-round.^[80] In winter, these winds bring in cold, dry continental air while in summer, it brings in dry and hot weather.^[80] Winds from the northwest bring warm and wet air from the Atlantic Ocean and are responsible for bringing precipitation during spring and summer.^[80] As well, winds from the southwest bring very warm and wet air from the subtropical latitudes of the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean sea and are responsible for bringing precipitation during fall and winter.^[80]

Mean annual temperatures range from {{convert|10|°C|°F|1}} in the far north (Armiansk) to {{convert|13|°C|°F|1}} in the far south (Yalta).^[80] In the mountains, the mean annual temperature is around {{convert|5.7|°C|°F|1}}.^[80] For every {{convert|100|m|ft|abbr=on}} increase in altitude, temperatures decrease by {{convert|0.65|C-change|2}} while precipitation increases.^[80] In January, mean temperatures range from {{convert|-3|°C|°F|1}} in Armiansl to {{convert|4.4|°C|°F|1}} in Myskhor.^[80] Cool season temperatures average around {{convert|7|°C|°F|1}} and it is rare for the weather to drop below freezing except in the mountains, where there is usually snow.^[82] In July, mean temperatures range from {{convert|15.4|°C|°F|1}} in Ai-Petri to {{convert|23.4|°C|°F|1}} in the central parts of Crimea to {{convert|24.4|°C|°F|1}} in Myskhor.^[80] The frost free period ranges from 160–200 days in the steppe and mountains regions to 240–260 days on the south coast.^[80]

Precipitation in Crimea varies significantly based on location; it ranges from {{convert|310|mm|in|1}} in Chornomorske to {{convert|1,220|mm|in|1}} at the highest altitudes in the Crimean mountains.^[80] The Crimean mountains greatly influence the amount of precipitation present in the peninsula.^[80] However, most of Crimea (88.5%) receives {{convert|300|to|500|mm|in|1}} of precipitation per year.^[80] The plains usually receive {{convert|300|to|400|mm|in|1}} of precipitation per year, increasing to {{convert|560|mm|in|1}} in the southern coast at sea level.^[80] The western parts of the Crimean mountains receive more than {{convert|1000|mm|in|1}} of precipitation per year.^[80] Snowfall is predominant in the mountains during winter.^[81]

Most of the peninsula receives more than 2,000 sunshine hours per year; it reaches up to 2,505 sunshine hours in Karabi–Yayla in the Crimean mountains.^[80] As a result, the climate is favorable for recreation and tourism.^[80] Because of its climate and subsidized travel packages from Russian state-run companies, the southern Crimean coast has remained a popular resort for Russian tourists.^[83]

Strategic value

The Dnieper River is a major waterway and transportation route that crosses the European continent from north to south and ultimately links the Black Sea with the Baltic Sea, of strategic importance since the historical trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks. The Black Sea serves as an economic thoroughfare connecting the Caucasus region and the Caspian Sea to central and Eastern Europe.^[85]

According to the International Transport Workers' Federation, in 2013 there were at least 12 operating merchant seaports in Crimea.^[86]

Economy

The main branches of the modern Crimean economy are agriculture and fishing oysters pearls else, industry and manufacturing along mining and chemical, tourism, ports. Industrial plants are situated for the most part in the southern coast (Eupatoria Sevastopol Feodosia Kerch) regions of the republic, few northern (Armyansk Krasnoperekopsk Dzhankoj), aside central area, mainly Simferopol okrug and eastern region in Nizhnegorsk (few plants, same for Dzhankoj) city. Important industrial cities include Dzhankoy, housing a major railway connection, Krasnoperekopsk and Armyansk, among others.

After the Russian annexation of Crimea in early 2014 and subsequent sanctions targeting Crimea, the tourist industry suffered major losses for two years. The flow of holidaymakers dropped 35 percent in the first half of 2014 over the same period of 2013.^[88] The number of tourist arrivals reached a record in 2012 at 6.1 million.^[89] According to the Russian administration of Crimea, they dropped to 3.8 million in 2014,^[90] and rebounded to 5.6 million by 2016.^[91]

The most important industries in Crimea include food production, chemical fields, mechanical engineering and metal working, and fuel production industries.^[122] Sixty percent of the industry market belongs to food production. There are a total of 291 large industrial enterprises and 1002 small business enterprises.^[122]

Agriculture in the region includes cereals, vegetable-growing, gardening, and wine-making, particularly in the Yalta and Massandra regions. Livestock production includes cattle breeding, poultry keeping, and sheep breeding.^[92] Other products produced on the Crimean Peninsula include salt, porphyry, limestone, and ironstone (found around Kerch) since ancient times.^[93]

In 2014, the republic's annual GDP was $4.3 billion (500 times smaller than the size of Russia's economy). The average salary was $290 per month. The budget deficit was $1.5 billion.^[94]

Energy

Crimea also possesses several natural gas fields both onshore and offshore, which were starting to be drilled by western oil and gas companies before annexation.^[95]^[96] The inland fields are located in Chornomorske and Dzhankoy, while offshore fields are located in the western coast in the Black Sea and in the northeastern coast in the Azov Sea:^[97]

The republic also possesses two oil fields: one onshore, the Serebryankse oil field in Rozdolne, and one offshore, the Subbotina oil field in the Black Sea.

Crimea has 540 MW of its own electricity generation capacity including Simferopol Thermal Power Plant (100 MW), Sevastopol Thermal Power Plant (22 MW) and Kamish-Burunskaya Thermal Power Plant (19 MW).^[99] This is insufficient for local consumption and since annexation by Russia, Crimea is reliant on an underwater power cable to mainland Russia.^[100]

Building and near start up are two combined cycle gas steam turbo thermal plants PGU, both 470 MW (116 167 MW GT, 235 MW block), build (plant) by TPE along others and turbines by Power Machines (UTZ KalugaTZ ?), NPO Saturn with Perm PMZ, either GTD-110M modified or GTE-160 or 180 units or UTZ KTZ or a V94.2 bought by MAPNA, modified in Russian plants for PGU Thermal plants specifics. Also many solar photovoltaic SES plants lie along the peninsula (north of Sevastopol too, a smaller facility). Also gas thermal Saki plant close to Jodobrom chemical plant and SaKhZ(SaChP) boosted production with Perm GTE GTU25P (PS90GP25 25 MW aeroderivative GP) PGU turbogenerators. Older plants are Sevastopol TEC (close to Inkerman) which use AEG and Ganz Elektro turbines and turbogenerators about 25 MW each, Sinferopol TEC (north, in Agrarne locale) Eupatoria, Kamysh Burun TEC (Kerch south - Zaliv) and few others.

Infrastructure

In May 2015, work began on a multibillion-dollar road-rail link (a pair of parallel bridges) across the Kerch Strait^[101]. The road bridge opened in May 2018, and the rail bridge is projected to be fully completed and operational by 2019. With a length of 19 km, it is the longest bridge in Europe, as it overcame Vasco da Gama Bridge in Lisbon.

Almost every settlement in Crimea is connected with another settlement by bus lines. Crimea contains the longest (96 km or 59 mi) trolleybus route in the world, stretching from Simferopol to Yalta.^[102] The trolleybus line starts near Simferopol's Railway Station (in Soviet times it started near Simferopol International Airport) through the mountains to Alushta and on to Yalta. The length of line is about 90 km. It was founded in 1959.

Railroad lines running through Crimea include Armyansk—Kerch (with a link to Feodosiya), and Melitopol—Sevastopol (with a link to Yevpatoria), connecting Crimea to the Ukrainian mainland.

The cities of Yalta, Feodosiya, Kerch, Sevastopol, Chornomorske and Yevpatoria are connected to one another by sea routes. In the cities of Yevpatoria and nearby townlet Molochnoye are tram systems.

Tourism

The development of Crimea as a holiday destination began in the second half of the 19th century. The development of the transport networks brought masses of tourists from central parts of the Russian Empire.

At the beginning of the 20th century, a major development of palaces, villas, and dachas began—most of which remain. These are some of the main attractions of Crimea as a tourist destination. There are many Crimean legends about famous touristic places, which attract the attention of tourists.

A new phase of tourist development began when the Soviet government realised the potential of the healing quality of the local air, lakes and therapeutic muds. It became a "health" destination for Soviet workers, and hundreds of thousands of Soviet tourists visited Crimea.

In the 1990s, Crimea became more of a get-away destination than a "health-improvement" destination. The most visited areas are the south shore of Crimea with cities of Yalta and Alushta, the western shore – Eupatoria and Saki, and the south-eastern shore – Feodosia and Sudak.

According to National Geographic, Crimea was among the top 20 travel destinations in 2013.^[107]

Sanctions

Following the Russia's largely unrecognized annexation of Crimea, the European Union, the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, and several other countries (including Ukraine) imposed economic sanctions against Russia, including some specifically targeting Crimea. Many of these sanctions were directed at individuals—both Russian and Crimean.^[108]^[109] In general they prohibit the sale, supply, transfer, or export of goods and technology in several sectors, including services directly related to tourism and infrastructure. They list seven ports where cruise ships cannot dock.^[110]^[111]^[112]^[113] Sanctions against individuals include travel bans and asset freezes. Visa and MasterCard temporarily stopped service in Crimea in December 2014.^[114]^[115] The Russian national payment card system now allows Visa and MasterCard cards issued by Russian banks to work in Crimea.^[116] The Mir (payment system) operated by the Central Bank of Russia operates in Crimea as well as Master Card and Visa.^[117] However, there are no major international banks in the Crimea.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}

Politics

The politics of Crimea is that of the Republic of Crimea on one hand, and that of the federal city of Sevastopol on the other. Since becoming the 84th and 85th Federal Subjects of the Russian Federation in 2014,^[118] both have strongly supported United Russia in both local and national elections.

At the most recent Crimean parliamentary election on 14 September 2014, United Russia won 70 of the 75 seats in the State Council of Crimea based on just over 70% of the vote. Despite calls from local Crimean Tatars for a boycott of the elections, turnout was over 53% which compared well with elections in other regions of Russia. Following the election, Sergey Aksyonov became Head of the Republic of Crimea: he had previously been Acting Head from 14 April 2014. United Russia is also the leading party in the Legislative Assembly of Sevastopol having won 22 of the 24 seats at the last election.^[119] The Governor of Sevastopol is Dmitry Ovsyannikov who was first appointed on 28 July 2016 following the resignation of Sergey Menyaylo, and secured re-election on 71% of the vote on 10 September 2017.

United Russia maintained its position as the most supported political party across Crimea at the Russian legislative election on 18 September 2016, achieving 72.8% of the vote.[https://ria.ru/infografika/20160918/1476912507.html#/summary] At 49.1%, turnout was slightly ahead of that for Russia as a whole which was only 47.8%.[https://ria.ru/infografika/20160918/1476912507.html#/summary]

At the 2018 Russian presidential election, Vladimir Putin secured 92% of the vote in Crimea compared to 77% across Russia as a whole.^[120]

Demographics

According to the 2014 Russian census, 84% of Crimean inhabitants named Russian as their native language; 7.9% – Crimean Tatar; 3.7% – Tatar; and 3.3% – Ukrainian.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} It was the first official Russian census in Crimea since Ukrainian that held in 2001.^[123]

According to the 2001 census, 77% of Crimean inhabitants named Russian as their native language; 11.4% – Crimean Tatar; and 10.1% – Ukrainian.^[124] In 2013, however, the Crimean Tatar language was estimated to be on the brink of extinction, being taught in Crimea only in around 15 schools at that point. Turkey provided the greatest support to Tatars in Ukraine, which had been unable to resolve the problem of education in their mother tongue in Crimea, by bringing the schools to a modern state.^[125]^[126]

Ethnic composition of Crimea's population has changed dramatically since the early 20th century. The 1897 Russian Empire Census for the Taurida Governorate reported: 196,854 (13.06%) Crimean Tatars, 404,463 (27.94%) Russians and 611,121 (42.21%) Ukrainians. But these numbers included Berdyansky, Dneprovsky and Melitopolsky uyezds which were on mainland, not in Crimea. The population number excluding these uyezds is given in the table below.

Crimean Tatars, a predominantly Muslim ethnic minority who in 2001 made up 12.1% of the population,^[136] formed in Crimea in the late Middle Ages, after the Crimean Khanate had come into existence. The Crimean Tatars were forcibly expelled to Central Asia by Joseph Stalin's government as a form of collective punishment, on the grounds that they had formed pro-German Tatar Legions. After the fall of the Soviet Union, Crimean Tatars began to return to the region.^[137] According to the 2001 Ukrainian population census, 58% of the population of Crimea are ethnic Russians and 24% are ethnic Ukrainians.^[136]

Jews in Crimea were historically Krymchaks and Karaites (the latter a small group centered at Yevpatoria). The 1879 census for the Taurida Governorate reported a Jewish population of 4.20%, not including a Karaite population of 0.43%.

The Krymchaks (but not the Karaites) were targeted for annihilation during Nazi occupation.

The number of Crimea Germans was 60,000 in 1939. During WWII, they were forcibly deported on the orders of Stalin, as they were regarded as a potential "fifth column".^[138]^[139]^[140] This was part of the 800,000 Germans in Russia who were relocated within the Soviet Union during Stalinist times.^[141] The 2001 Ukrainian census reports just 2,500 ethnic Germans (0.1% of population) in Crimea.

Besides the Crimean Germans, Stalin in 1944 also deported 70,000 Greeks, 14,000 Bulgarians^[142] and 3,000 Italians.

Religion

In 2013, Orthodox Christians made up 58% of the Crimean population, followed by Muslims (15%) and believers in God without religion (10%).^[143]

Following the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea 38 out of 46 the Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kiev Patriarchate parishes in Crimea ceased to exist, in three cases churches were seized by the Russian authorities.^[144] Notwithstanding the annexation the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) kept control of its eparchies in Crimea.^[145]

Culture

Alexander Pushkin visited Bakhchysarai in 1820 and later wrote the poem The Fountain of Bakhchisaray. Crimea was the background for Adam Mickiewicz's seminal work, The Crimean Sonnets inspired by his 1825 travel. A series of 18 sonnets constitute an artistic telling of a journey to and through the Crimea, they feature romantic descriptions of the oriental nature and culture of the East which show the despair of an exile longing for the homeland, driven from his home by a violent enemy.

Crimean Tatar singer Jamala won the Eurovision Song Contest 2016 representing Ukraine with her song 1944, about the historic deportation of Crimean Tatars in that year by Soviet authorities.^[147]

According to the, broken in practice by Russian companies, Ukrainian “law on concert activities” only Ukrainian companies can organise concerts in Crimea.^[148]

Sport

Following Crimea's vote to join Russia and subsequent annexation in March 2014, the top football clubs withdrew from the Ukrainian leagues. Some clubs registered to join the Russian leagues but the Football Federation of Ukraine objected. UEFA ruled that Crimean clubs could not join the Russian leagues but should instead be part of a Crimean league system. The Crimean Premier League is now the top professional football league in Crimea.^[149]

A number of Crimean-born athletes have been given permission to compete for Russia instead of Ukraine at future competitions, including Vera Rebrik, the European javelin champion.^[150] Due to Russia currently being suspended from all international athletic competitions Rebrik participates in tournaments as a "neutral" athlete.^[151]

Gallery

See also

References

1. ^{{cite web|title=Treaty to accept Crimea, Sevastopol to Russian Federation signed|url=http://rt.com/news/putin-include-crimea-sevastopol-russia-578/|work=rt.com|publisher=Autonomous Nonprofit Organization "TV-Novosti"|accessdate=24 March 2014|date=March 18, 2014}}
2. ^{{cite news|url=http://en.krymedia.ru/society/3365334-Results-of-Census-Population-of-Crimea-is-2284-Million-People|title=Results of Census: Population of Crimea is 2.284 Million People|work=en.krymedia.ru|accessdate=13 February 2016|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151104175105/http://en.krymedia.ru/society/3365334-Results-of-Census-Population-of-Crimea-is-2284-Million-People|archivedate=4 November 2015|df=}}
3. ^{{cite web |url=http://en.krymedia.ru/nationality/3373760-Only-33-of-Crimeans-Mention-Ukrainian-as-Their-Native-Language |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-01-07 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20150420155818/http://en.krymedia.ru/nationality/3373760-Only-33-of-Crimeans-Mention-Ukrainian-as-Their-Native-Language |archivedate=2015-04-20 |df= }}
4. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.kasparov.ru/material.php?id=552E31B8AFC23 |title=Катастрофический фактор | Все блоги | Блоги | Каспаров.Ru |publisher=Kasparov.ru |date= |accessdate=2018-07-03}}
5. ^{{cite web |url=https://eurasianstudies.wordpress.com/2015/03/19/russian-census-of-crimea-nationality-results/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-04-20 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427124650/https://eurasianstudies.wordpress.com/2015/03/19/russian-census-of-crimea-nationality-results/ |archivedate=2015-04-27 |df= }}
6. ^[https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/why-did-russia-give-away-crimea-sixty-years-ago?gclid=CLHnyZC7ndACFSLicgod-UEIXw Why Did Russia Give Away Crimea Sixty Years Ago?], Mark Kramer, The Wilson Center, 19 March 2014
7. ^{{cite web|url=http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/46860|title=Meeting of the Valdai International Discussion Club|publisher=Kremlin.ru|date=24 October 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415032511/http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/46860|archivedate=15 April 2015|quote=I will be frank; we used our Armed Forces to block Ukrainian units stationed in Crimea}}
8. ^{{cite news|url=http://interfax.com.ua/news/political/196031.html|publisher=Interfax-Ukraine|script-title=ru:КС признал неконституционным постановление крымского парламента о вхождении АРК в состав РФ и проведении референдума о статусе автономии|trans-title=Constitutional Court of Ukraine deemed Crimean parliament resolution on accession of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea to the Russian Federation and holding of the Crimean status referendum unconstitutional|date=14 March 2014|language=ru}}
{{cite web|url=http://mfa.gov.ua/en/news-feeds/foreign-offices-news/19573-rishennya-konstitucijnogo-sudu-v-ukrajini-shhodo-referendumu-v-krimu|title=Judgement of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine on all-Crimean referendum|work=Embassy of Ukraine in the United States of America|date=15 March 2014}}
9. ^{{cite journal|format=PDF|last=Tokarev|first=Alexey|date=2014|script-title=ru:Электоральная история постсоветского Крыма: от УССР до России|trans-title=The electoral history of the post-Soviet Crimea: from Ukrainian SSR to Russia|language=ru|url=http://www.vestnik.mgimo.ru/sites/default/files/pdf/004_istoriya_tokarevaa.pdf|journal=MGIMO Review of International Relations|volume=5|issue=44|pages= 32–41|quote=Спустя 22 года и 364 дня после первого в СССР референдума в автономной республике Украины Крым состоялся последний референдум. Проводился он вопреки украинскому законодательству, не предусматривающему понятия региональный референдум и предписывающему решать территориальные вопросы только на всеукраинском референдуме}}
10. ^{{cite journal|format=PDF|url=http://www.zaoerv.de/74_2014/74_2014_2_a_367_392.pdf|title=The Crimea Crisis – An International Law Perspective|last=Marxen|first=Christian|journal=Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht (Heidelberg Journal of International Law)|volume=74|date=2014|quote=Organizing and holding the referendum on Crimea's accession to Russia was illegal under the Ukrainian constitution. Article 2 of the constitution establishes that "Ukraine shall be a unitary state" and that the "territory of Ukraine within its present border is indivisible and inviolable". This is confirmed in regard to Crimea by Chapter X of the constitution, which provides for the autonomous status of Crimea. Article 134 sets forth that Crimea is an "inseparable constituent part of Ukraine". The autonomous status provides Crimea with a certain set of authorities and allows, inter alia, to hold referendums. These rights are, however, limited to local matters. The constitution makes clear that alterations to the territory of Ukraine require an all-Ukrainian referendum.}}
11. ^{{citeweb |url= http://www.itv.com/news/2014-03-16/crimea-votes-to-rejoin-russia-after-controversial-poll/ |title= Crimea 'votes to rejoin Russia' after controversial poll |work=ITV |date= 16 March 2014 |accessdate= 26 November 2017}}
12. ^{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/17/ukraine-crimea-russia-referendum-complain-result |title= Crimea applies to be part of Russian Federation after vote to leave Ukraine |work= The Guardian |date= 17 March 2014}}
13. ^{{cite web|url=http://pravo.gov.ru:8080/page.aspx?92062 |script-title= ru:Распоряжение Президента Российской Федерации от 17.03.2014 № 63-рп 'О подписании Договора между Российской Федерацией и Республикой Крым о принятии в Российскую Федерацию Республики Крым и образовании в составе Российской Федерации новых субъектов' |accessdate=25 June 2016 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140318095051/http://pravo.gov.ru:8080/page.aspx?92062 |archivedate= 18 March 2014 |df=dmy}}
14. ^{{cite book|author=Compiled from original authors|title=An Universal History,rom the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CCsIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA129|accessdate=1 April 2015|year=1779|pages=127–129|chapter=The History of the Bosporus}}
15. ^Edward Allworth, The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland: Studies and Documents, Duke University Press, 1998, p.6
16. ^Abū al-Fidā , Mukhtaṣar tāʾrīkh al-bashar (“A Brief History of Mankind”) , 1315-1329; English translation of chronicle contemporaneous with Abū al-Fidā in The Memoirs of a Syrian Prince : Abul̓-Fidā,̕ sultan of Ḥamāh (672-732/1273-1331) by Peter M. Holt, Franz Steiner Verlag, 1983, pp. 38-39.
17. ^William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), s.v. Taurica Chersonesus. vol. ii, p. 1109.
18. ^W. Radloff, Versuch eines Wörterbuches der Türk-Dialecte (1888), ii. 745
19. ^{{cite book|author=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Encyclopædia Britannica: or, A dictionary of arts and sciences, compiled by a society of gentlemen in Scotland [ed. by W. Smellie]. Suppl. to the 3rd. ed., by G. Gleig|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGMIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA153|accessdate=1 April 2015|year=1810|page=153}}
20. ^{{cite book|author1=Alexander MacBean|authorlink1=Alexander MacBean|author2=Samuel Johnson|title=A Dictionary of Ancient Geography: Explaining the Local Appellations in Sacred, Grecian, and Roman History; Exhibiting the Extent of Kingdoms, and Situations of Cities, &c. And Illustrating the Allusions and Epithets in the Greek and Roman Poets. The Whole Established by Proper Authorities, and Designed for the Use of Schools|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EqwBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT185|accessdate=1 April 2015|year=1773|publisher=G. Robinson|page=185}}
21. ^{{cite book|last=Asimov|first=Isaac|title=Asimov's Chronology of the World|year=1991|publisher=HarperCollins|location=New York|page=50}}.
22. ^George Vernadsky, Michael Karpovich, [https://books.google.com/books?hl=de&id=sfANAQAAMAAJ A History of Russia], Yale University Press, 1952, [https://books.google.com/books?hl=de&id=sfANAQAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=qirim p. 53]. Quote*"The name Crimea is to be derived from the Turkish word qirim (hence the Russian krym), which means "fosse" and refers more specifically to the Perekop Isthmus, the old Russian word perekop being an exact translation of the Turkish qirim.
23. ^The Proto-Turkic root is cited as *kōrɨ- "to fence, protect" Starling (citing Севортян Э. В. и др. [E. W. Sewortyan et al.], Этимологический словарь тюркских языков [An Etymological Dictionary of the Turkic languages] (1974–2000) 6, 76–78).
24. ^Edward Allworth, [https://books.google.com/books?id=srR_4d3mjTAC The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland : Studies and Documents], Duke University Press, 1998, pp. 5–7
25. ^A. D. (Alfred Denis) Godley. Herodotus. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. vol. 2, 1921, p. 221.
26. ^See John Richard Krueger, specialist in the studies of Chuvash, Yakut, and the Mongolian languages in Edward Allworth, [https://books.google.com/books?id=srR_4d3mjTAC The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland : Studies and Documents], Duke University Press, 1998, p. 24.
27. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=FdsyAQAAQBAJ Jews in Byzantium: Dialectics of Minority and Majority Cultures], BRILL, 2011, p.753, n. 102.
28. ^The Mongolian kori⁻ is explained as a loan from Turkic by Doerfer Türkische und mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen 3 (1967), 450 and by Щербак, Ранние тюркско-монгольские языковые связи (VIII-XIV вв.) (1997) p. 141.
29. ^Maiolino Bisaccioni, Giacomo Pecini, Historia delle guerre ciuili di questi vltimi tempi, cioe, d'Inghilterra, Catalogna, Portogallo, Palermo, Napoli, Fermo, Moldauia, Polonia, Suizzeri, Francia, Turco. per Francesco Storti. Alla Fortezza, sotto il portico de' Berettari, 1655, [https://books.google.com/books?id=o1AQbgLabIoC&pg=PA349 p. 349]: "dalla fortuna de Cosacchi dipendeva la sicurezza della Crimea". Nicolò Beregani, Historia delle guerre d'Europa, Volume 2 (1683), [https://books.google.com/books?id=28BCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA251 p. 251].
30. ^{{cite book|title=The Annual Register or a View of the History, Politics, and Literature for the Year 1783|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oY1h2Pa1kaUC&pg=PA364|accessdate=1 April 2015|year=1785|publisher=J. Dodsley|page=364|chapter=State Papers}}
31. ^Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=LvENAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA306 306f.] "the peninsula of Crim Tartary, known to the ancients under the name of Chersonesus Taurica"; ibid. Volume 10 (1788), p. 211: "The modern reader must not confound this old Cherson of the Tauric or Crimean peninsula with a new city of the same name". See also John Millhouse, English-Italian (1859), [https://books.google.com/books?id=jfAPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA597 p. 597]
32. ^Edith Hall, Adventures with Iphigenia in Tauris (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=CjwfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 p. 176]:"it was indeed at some point between the 1730s and the 1770s that the dream of recreating ancient 'Taurida' in the southern Crimea was conceived. Catherine's plan was to create a paradisiacal imperial 'garden' there, and her Greek archbishop Eugenios Voulgaris obliged by inventing a new etymology for the old name of Tauris, deriving it from taphros, which (he claimed) was the ancient Greek for a ditch dug by human hands."
33. ^{{cite web|author=Brian Glyn Williams|title=The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire|url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf|publisher=The Jamestown Foundation|format=PDF|year=2013|page=27|accessdate=30 March 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021092115/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf|archivedate=21 October 2013|df=}}
34. ^"[https://books.google.com/books?id=i85noYD9C0EC&pg=PA260&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World]". John F. Richards (2006). University of California Press. p.260. {{ISBN|0-520-24678-0}}
35. ^Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by {{cite web|author=Mikhail Kizilov|title=Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards: The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captives in the Crimean Khanate|url=https://www.academia.edu/3706285/Slaves_Money_Lenders_and_Prisoner_Guards_The_Jews_and_the_Trade_in_Slaves_and_Captives_in_the_Crimean_Khanate|work=The Journal of Jewish Studies|year=2007|page=2|accessdate=30 March 2015}}
36. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.nus.edu.sg/hist/eia/documents_archive/kucuk-kaynarca.php |title=Treaty of Peace (Küçük Kaynarca), 1774|work=nus.edu.sg|date=20 November 2014|accessdate=29 March 2015}}
37. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.runivers.ru/bookreader/book9829/#page/891/mode/1up|script-title=ru:Полное собрание законов Российской Империи. Собрание Первое. Том XXI. 1781 – 1783 гг.|trans-title=Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire. The first meeting. Volume XXI. 1781–1783.|language=ru|website=Runivers|accessdate=30 March 2015}}
38. ^{{cite journal|jstor=4205010|title=The Great Powers and the Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1783-4|author=M. S. Anderson|journal=The Slavonic and East European Review|date=December 1958|volume=37|issue=88|pages=17–41}}
39. ^{{cite journal|title=Crimean War (1853–1856)|journal=Gale Encyclopedia of World History: War|date=2008|volume=2|url=http://www.omnilogos.com/2015/01/crimean-war-1853-1856.html|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416183025/http://www.omnilogos.com/2015/01/crimean-war-1853-1856.html|archivedate=2015-04-16|df=}}
40. ^{{cite book |last1=Arad |first1=Yitzhak |title=The Holocaust in the Soviet Union |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=080322270X |page=211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DqAb5tY4Ai8C&pg=PA211}}
41. ^"[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/10/ukraine-and-west-hot-air-hypocrisy-crimea-russia Ukraine and the west: hot air and hypocrisy]". The Guardian. March 10, 2014.
42. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.iccrimea.org/historical/crimeatransfer.html |title=The Transfer of Crimea to Ukraine |accessdate=March 25, 2007 |date=July 2005 |work=International Committee for Crimea }}
43. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.blacksea-crimea.com/history1.html |title=History |accessdate=March 28, 2007 |work=blacksea-crimea.com}}
44. ^The Strategic Use of Referendums: Power, Legitimacy, and Democracy By Mark Clarence Walke (page 107)
45. ^¹National Identity and Ethnicity in Russia and the New States of Eurasia edited by Roman Szporluk (page 174)
46. ^¹Secession as an International Phenomenon: From America's Civil War to Contemporary Separatist Movements edited by Don Harrison Doyle (page 284)
— 67.5% of the total Crimean electorate voted, and 54.2% said yes.
47. ^¹{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/06/world/crimea-parliament-votes-to-back-independence-from-ukraine.html|agency=The New York Times|title=Crimea Parliament Votes to Back Independence From Ukraine|first=Serge|last=Schmemann|date=6 May 1992|accessdate=27 March 2015}}
48. ^{{cite book|author=Paul Kolstoe|author2=Andrei Edemsky|title=Russians in the Former Soviet Republics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i1C2MHgujb4C&pg=PA194|accessdate=1 April 2015|date=January 1995|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=978-1-85065-206-9|page=194|chapter=The Eye of the Whirlwind: Belarus and Ukraine}}
49. ^
50. ^Regions Party gets 80 of 100 seats on Crimean parliament, Interfax Ukraine (11 November 2010)
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52. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/09/vladimir-putin-describes-secret-meeting-when-russia-decided-to-seize-crimea|title=Vladimir Putin describes secret meeting when Russia decided to seize Crimea|publisher=The Guardian|agency=AFP|date=9 March 2015|accessdate=14 April 2016}}
53. ^{{cite news|first=Alec|last=Luhn|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/18/red-square-rally-vladimir-putin-crimea|title=Red Square rally hails Vladimir Putin after Crimea accession|work=The Guardian|location=Moscow|date=18 March 2014|accessdate=14 April 2016}}
54. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2014/ga11493.doc.htm|title=General Assembly Adopts Resolution Calling upon States Not to Recognize Changes in Status of Crimea Region|publisher=Un.org|date=27 March 2014|accessdate=14 April 2016}}
55. ^{{cite news|first=Mark|last=Mardell|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26776416|title=Ukraine: UN condemns Crimea vote as IMF and US back loans|publisher=bbc.co.uk|date=27 March 2014|accessdate=14 April 2016}}
56. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ukrinform.ua/rus/news/rossiya_ubrala_voyska_s_arabatskoy_strelki|publisher=Ukrinform|script-title=ru:Россия убрала войска с Арабатской стрелки|trans-title=Russian troops removed from the Arabat Spit|language=ru|date=9 December 2014|accessdate=14 April 2016}}
57. ^{{cite web|first=Oksana|last=Grytsenko|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/russian-troops-firmly-in-control-of-ukraines-gas-extraction-station-in-kherson-oblasts-arabat-spit-341084.html|publisher=Kyiv Post|title=Russian troops firmly in control of Ukraine's gas extraction station in Kherson Oblast's Arabat Spit|date=27 March 2014|accessdate=14 April 2016}}
58. ^{{cite web|url=http://en.itar-tass.com/russia/724972|title=TASS: Russia – Russian ruble goes into official circulation in Crimea as of Monday|work=TASS|accessdate=29 May 2016}}
59. ^{{cite news|title=Ukraine crisis: Crimea celebrates switch to Moscow time|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26806583|accessdate=29 May 2016|publisher=BBC News|date=29 March 2014}}
60. ^{{cite web|url=http://en.ria.ru/russia/20140411/189160173/Russia-Amends-Constitution-to-Include-Crimea-Sevastopol.html|title=Russia Amends Constitution to Include Crimea, Sevastopol|author=Sputnik|date=April 11, 2014|accessdate=29 May 2016|work=ria.ru}}
61. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-01/crimea-adopts-ruble-as-ukraine-continues-battling-rebels.html | work=Bloomberg | first=Volodymyr | last=Verbyany | title=Crimea Adopts Ruble as Ukraine Continues Battling Rebels | date=June 1, 2014|accessdate=29 May 2016}}
62. ^{{cite web|first=Jess|last=McHugh|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/putin-eliminates-ministry-crimea-region-fully-integrated-russia-russian-leaders-say-2009463|publisher=International Business Times|title=Putin Eliminates Ministry Of Crimea, Region Fully Integrated Into Russia, Russian Leaders Say|date=15 July 2015|accessdate=14 April 2016}}
63. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/new-maps-appear-to-show-crimea-is-drying-up/29361889.html|title=New maps appear to show Crimea is drying up|website=rferl.org}}
64. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2017-03-31/crimea-pays-a-high-price-three-years-after-russian-takeover|title=The High Price of Putin’s Takeover of Crimea|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|date=31 March 2017|accessdate=19 April 2018}}
65. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-crimea-blackout/crimea-suffers-total-power-blackout-after-power-station-shuts-down-idUSKBN1J91V3|title=Russia restores Crimea power supply after blackout|date=13 June 2018|accessdate=12 March 2019|website=reuters.com |archiveurl=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-crimea-blackout/crimea-suffers-total-power-blackout-after-power-station-shuts-down-idUSKBN1J91V3 |archivedate=2019-01-23}}
66. ^{{citeweb|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-46699807| title=Ukraine conflict: Russia completes Crimea security fence|publisher=BBC|date=28 December 2018|accessdate=1 January 2019}}
67. ^The Crimean Mountains may also be referred to as the Yaylâ Dağ or Alpine Meadow Mountains.
68. ^See the article "Crimea" in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.
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72. ^{{harvnb|Jaoshvili|2002|page=34}}
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85. ^{{cite news | url=http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/world/2014/March/Russias-Deputy-PM-Scoffs-at-US-Sanctions/ | title=Crimea Annexation 'Robbery on International Scale' | work=CBN News | date=2014-03-19 | accessdate=19 March 2014 | agency=CBN News }}
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96. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.eegas.com/ukraine.htm |title=East European Gas Analysis – Ukrainian Gas Pipelines |publisher=Eegas.com |date=2013-02-09 |accessdate=2014-03-08}}
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100. ^{{cite news|title=Crimea goes dark after Russian shutdown leaves the peninsula without power|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/afp-crimea-left-in-dark-after-russian-power-shutdown-2017-7|accessdate=28 July 2017|work=Business Insider|date=28 July 2017}}
101. ^{{cite news|title=Putin orders military exercise as protesters clash in Crimea|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-crimea-bridge-idUSKCN0XF1YS|date=18 April 2016|accessdate=24 April 2016|publisher=reuters}}
102. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.blacksea-crimea.com/Places/trolleybuses.html |title=The longest trolleybus line in the world! |accessdate=January 15, 2007 |work=blacksea-crimea.com }}
103. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.rbth.com/business/328077-crimea-new-airport-russia|title=Crimea opens the largest and most beautiful airport in Russia’s south|date=17 April 2018|accessdate=17 April 2018}}
104. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.ruaviation.com/news/2018/4/22/11263/?h|title=New terminal of Simferopol airport opened at Crimea|publisher=www.ruaviation.com|date=22 April 2018|accessdate=22 April 2018}}
105. ^Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd ed., Entry on Artek
106. ^The International Children Center Artek – Ukrainian tours
107. ^{{cite web|url=http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/best-trips-2013/|title=Best Trips 2013, Crimea|author=National Geographic Society|work=National Geographic|accessdate=29 March 2015}}
108. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-03-19/australia-sanctions-russia-ukraine/5331826 |title=Australia imposes sanctions on Russians after annexation of Crimea from Ukraine |publisher=Abc.net.au |date=19 March 2014 |accessdate=29 March 2015}}
109. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2014/03/18/japan-imposes-sanctions-against-russia-over-crimea-independence/ |title=Japan imposes sanctions against Russia over Crimea independence |publisher=Fox News |date=18 March 2014 |accessdate=29 March 2015}}
110. ^{{cite web|title=EU sanctions add to Putin's Crimea headache|url=https://euobserver.com/foreign/126986|website=EUobserver.com|publisher=EUobserver|accessdate=28 March 2015}}
111. ^{{cite web|url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2014-60/page-1.html |title=Special Economic Measures (Ukraine) Regulations |publisher=Canadian Justice Laws Website |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=30 March 2015}}
112. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/international-relations/security/sanctions/Pages/consolidated-list.aspx |title=Australia and sanctions – Consolidated List – Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |publisher=Dfat.gov.au |date=25 March 2015 |accessdate=29 March 2015}}
113. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_Data/docs/pressdata/en/cfsp/142174.pdf |title=Declaration by the High Representative on behalf of the European Union on the alignment of certain third countries with the Council Decision 2014/145/CFSPconcerning restrictive measures in respect of actions undermining or threatening the territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence of Ukraine |publisher=European Union |format=PDF |date=11 April 2014 |accessdate=29 March 2015}}
114. ^{{cite news|title=Crimea hit by multiple sanctions as power, transport and banking communications are cut off|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/kyiv-post-plus/crimea-hit-by-multiple-sanctions-as-power-transport-and-banking-communications-are-cut-off-376206.html|accessdate=28 March 2015|agency=Kyiv Post}}
115. ^{{cite news|title=Visa and MasterCard quit Crimea over US sanctions|url=http://www.euronews.com/2014/12/26/visa-and-mastercard-quit-crimea-over-us-sanctions/|accessdate=28 March 2015|agency=Euronews}}
116. ^{{cite news|title=Visa and MasterCard resume operations in Crimea|url=http://www.rt.com/business/254449-crimea-mastercard-visa-npcs/|accessdate=23 July 2015|agency=TV-Novosti|publisher=RT.com|date=30 April 2015}}
117. ^{{cite news|title=Visa and MasterCard resume operations in Crimea|url=http://www.rt.com/business/254449-crimea-mastercard-visa-npcs/|accessdate=23 July 2015|agency=TV-Novosti|publisher=RT.com|date=30 April 2015}}
118. ^{{cite web |url= https://www.ft.com/content/7ead9b64-b048-11e3-8efc-00144feab7de |title= Crimea – Russia’s return |date= 31 March 2014 |accessdate= 4 November 2014}}
119. ^{{cite web|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AmfABgAAQBAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=legislative+assembly+sevastopol+election+2014&source=bl&ots=mA6MHhA4u4&sig=oWu83ycHdClsnPxNCEj7hiKupP4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiqx7329rXVAhUBJFAKHX81Bx0Q6AEISjAH#v=onepage&q=legislative%20assembly%20sevastopol%20election%202014&f=false |title= The Territories of the Russian Federation 2015|page=311 |accessdate=1 August 2017}}
120. ^{{cite web|url=https://financialobserver.eu/recent-news/putin-wins-elections-with-77-of-the-votes-at-67-5-turnout/|title=Putin wins elections with 77% of the votes at 67.5% turnout|date=19 March 2018|accessdate=30 March 2018}}
121. ^{{cite web |url=http://en.krymedia.ru/society/3365334-Results-of-Census-Population-of-Crimea-is-2284-Million-People |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-02-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151104175105/http://en.krymedia.ru/society/3365334-Results-of-Census-Population-of-Crimea-is-2284-Million-People |archivedate=2015-11-04 |df= }}
122. ^{{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/regions/reg_crym/ |title= Regions of Ukraine / Autonomous Republic of Crimea |accessdate=December 16, 2006 |work=2001 Ukrainian Census }}
123. ^{{cite news|title=Census of the population is transferred to 2016|url=http://dt.ua/UKRAINE/perepis-naselennya-pereneseno-na-2016-rik-128768_.html|accessdate=7 March 2014|newspaper=Dzerkalo Tzhnia|date=20 September 2013|language=uk}}
124. ^{{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/language/Crimea/ |title= Results / General results of the census / Linguistic composition of the population / Autonomous Republic of Crimea |work=2001 Ukrainian Census }}
125. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.avrupatimes.com/culture/3676-crimean-tatar-language-in-danger.html|title=Crimean Tatar language in danger|publisher=avrupatimes.com|date=19 February 2013|accessdate=31 March 2015}}
126. ^{{cite web|url=http://archive.ethnologue.com/16/show_language.asp?code=crh |title=Crimean Tatar |publisher=Ethnologue |date=2009|accessdate=31 March 2015}}
127. ^These numbers exclude the population numbers for Berdyansky, Dneprovsky and Melitopolsky Uyezds, which were on mainland. See the administrative divisions of the Taurida Governorate
128. ^{{cite web|title=The First General Census of the Russian Empire of 1897 – Taurida Governorate|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97_uezd_eng.php?reg=1420|website=demoscope.ru|publisher=Демоскоп|accessdate=18 June 2014}}{| class="wikitable"!|! | Taurida Governate! | Berdyansk County! | Dneiper County! | Melitopol County! | Crimea|-||Russians || 404,463 || 55,303 || 42,180 || 126,017 || 180,963|-||Ukrainians || 611,121 || 179,177 || 156,151 || 211,090 || 64,703|-||Tatars || 196,854 || 770 || 506 || 1,284 || 194,294|-||Belarusians || 9,726 || 1,323 || 3,005 || 3,340 || 2,058|-||Armenians || 8,938 || 201 || 47 || 373 || 8,317|-||Jews || 55,418 || 8,889 || 6,298 || 16,063 || 24,168|-||Other || 161,270 || 59,055 || 4,054 || 26,072 || 72,089|-||Total Population || 1,447,790 || 304,718 || 212,241 || 384,239 || 546,592|-|}
129. ^{{cite web|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_26.php?reg=788|title=Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей.|website=demoscope.ru}}
130. ^{{cite web|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_39.php?reg=68|title=Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей.|website=demoscope.ru}}
131. ^{{cite web|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/ussr59_reg1.php|title=Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей.|website=demoscope.ru}}
132. ^Crimea – Dynamics, challenges and prospects / edited by Maria Drohobycky. Page 73
133. ^Crimea – Dynamics, challenges and prospects / edited by Maria Drohobycky. Page 72
134. ^¹this combines the figures for the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol, listing groups of more than 5,000 individuals. {{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/nationality/Crimea/|title=About number and composition population of Autonomous Republic of Crimea by data All-Ukrainian population census|accessdate=26 October 2015|work=2001 Ukrainian Census}}; {{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/nationality/Sevastopol/|title=Sevastopol|work=2001 Ukrainian Census|accessdate=26 October 2015}};{{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/estimate/|title=About number and composition population of Ukraine by data All-Ukrainian Population Census 2001|accessdate=26 October 2015|work=2001 Ukrainian Census}}
135. ^Итоги Переписи Населения В Крымском Федеральном Округе [Censuses in Crimean Federal District], Таблицы с итогами Федерального статистического наблюдения "Перепись населения в Крымском федеральном округе" [Tables with the results of the Federal Statistical observation "Census in the Crimean Federal District"] 4.1 Национальный Состав Населения [4.1. National composition of population]
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138. ^"[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010115522/http://www.volgagermans.net/norka/docs/Deportation%20and%20Destruction%20Soviet%20Germans.pdf The Deportation and Destruction of the German Minority in the USSR]" (PDF)
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140. ^"NKVD Arrest List" (PDF)
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144. ^[https://www.unian.info/society/10295148-russia-seeks-to-crush-ukrainian-orthodox-church-in-crimea-for-helping-resist-russification-khpg.html Russia seeks to crush Ukrainian Orthodox Church in Crimea for helping resist Russification], UNIAN (11 October 2018)
145. ^{{ru icon}} Статус епархий в Крыму остался неизменным, заявили в УПЦ Московского патриархата NEWSru, 10 March 2015.
{{ru icon}} [https://www.rbc.ru/society/18/08/2014/570420d59a794760d3d40c5f The Ukrainian Church of the Moscow Patriarchate demanded the return of the Crimea], RBK Group (18 August 2014)
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148. ^Why Scooter are playing in Putin’s annexed Crimea, Bild (16 June 2017)
149. ^{{cite web|url=https://sports.yahoo.com/news/uefa-backed-league-starts-play-crimea-094547026--sow.html|title=UEFA-backed league starts play in Crimea|date=23 August 2015|work=Yahoo Sports|accessdate=13 February 2016}}
150. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1032350/ukrainian-sport-minister-urges-federations-not-to-let-athletes-switch-to-russia-without-serving-qualifying-period|title=Ukrainian Sport Minister urges Federations not to let athletes switch to Russia without serving qualifying period|date=8 December 2015|accessdate=2 May 2016}}
151. ^14 Russians bid to take part in IAAF World Championships, TASS news agency (5 July 2017)