“Laws against Holocaust denial”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Holocaust denial, the denial of the systematic genocidal killing of approximately six million Jews in Europe by Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, is illegal in 16 European countries and Israel. Many countries also have broader laws that criminalize genocide denial. Of the countries that ban Holocaust denial, some, such as Austria, Germany, Hungary, and Romania, were among the perpetrators of the Holocaust, and many of these also ban other elements associated with Nazism, such as the expression of Nazi symbols.

Laws against Holocaust denial have been proposed in many nations (in addition to those nations that have criminalized such acts) including the United States and the United Kingdom. Such proposals for laws have received criticism and faced opposition, most significantly, from civil rights and human rights advocates who contend that the such laws would violate people's established rights of freedom of speech and freedom of expression. Organizations representing Jews and other groups victimized during the Holocaust have generally been split, in opinion, about such laws.

Overview and commentary

Scholars have pointed out that countries that specifically ban Holocaust denial generally have legal systems that limit speech in other ways, such as banning "hate speech". According to D. D. Guttenplan, this is a split between the "common law countries of the United States, Ireland and many British Commonwealth countries from the civil law countries of continental Europe and Scotland. In civil law countries the law is generally more proscriptive. Also, under the civil law regime, the judge acts more as an inquisitor, gathering and presenting evidence as well as interpreting it".^[1] Michael Whine argues that Holocaust denial can inspire violence against Jews; he states, "Jews' experience in the post-World War II era suggests that their rights are best protected in open and tolerant democracies that actively prosecute all forms of racial and religious hatred".^[2]

János Kis^[3] and in particular András Schiffer^[4] feel the work of Holocaust deniers should be protected by a universal right to free speech.

An identical argument was used^[5] by the Hungarian Constitutional Court (Alkotmánybíróság) led by László Sólyom when it struck down a law against Holocaust denial in 1992. The argument that laws punishing Holocaust denial are incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights have been rejected by institutions of the Council of Europe (the European Commission of Human Rights,^[6] the European Court of Human Rights^[7]) and also by the United Nations Human Rights Committee.^[8]

Historians who oppose such laws include Raul Hilberg,^[9] Richard J. Evans, Pierre Vidal-Naquet, and Timothy Garton Ash.^[10] Other prominent opponents include Christopher Hitchens, Peter Singer,^[11] and Noam Chomsky,^[12] who wrote:

An uproar resulted when Serge Thion used one of Chomsky's essays without explicit permission as a foreword to a book of Holocaust denial essays (see Faurisson affair).

In January 2019, in an interview in The New Yorker in connection with the publication of her book, Here and Now, Holocaust historian Deborah E. Lipstadt expressed her opposition to laws against expressing Holocaust denial:

These laws have also been criticized on the grounds that education is more effective than legislation at combating Holocaust denial and that the laws will make martyrs out of those imprisoned for their violation.^[15]

By country

Australia

While Australia lacks a specific law against Holocaust denial, Holocaust denial is prosecuted in Australia under various laws against "hate speech" and "racial vilification".^[16]^[17] Gerald Fredrick Töben and his Adelaide Institute are the best-known case of someone being prosecuted in Australia for Holocaust denial.^[18]

Austria

In Austria, the Verbotsgesetz 1947 provided the legal framework for the process of denazification in Austria and suppression of any potential revival of Nazism. In 1992, it was amended to prohibit the denial or gross minimisation of the Holocaust.

§ 3g. He who operates in a manner characterized other than that in § § 3a – 3f will be punished (revitalising of the NSDAP or identification with), with imprisonment from one to up to ten years, and in cases of particularly dangerous suspects or activity, be punished with up to twenty years' imprisonment.^[19]

§ 3h. As an amendment to § 3 g., whoever denies, grossly plays down, approves or tries to excuse the National Socialist genocide or other National Socialist crimes against humanity in a print publication, in broadcast or other media.^[20]}}

Belgium

Article 1 Whoever, in the circumstances given in article 444 of the Penal Code denies, grossly minimises, attempts to justify, or approves the genocide committed by the German National Socialist Regime during the Second World War shall be punished by a prison sentence of eight days to one year, and by a fine of twenty six francs to five thousand francs. For the application of the previous paragraph, the term genocide is meant in the sense of article 2 of the International Treaty of 9 December 1948 on preventing and combating genocide. In the event of repetitions, the guilty party may in addition have his civic rights suspended in accordance with article 33 of the Penal Code.

Art.2 In the event of a conviction on account of a violation under this Act, it may be ordered that the judgement, in its entity or an excerpt of it, is published in one of more newspapers, and is displayed, to the charge of the guilty party.

Art.3. Chapter VII of the First Book of the Penal Code and Article 85 of the same Code are also applicable to this Act.

Art. 4. The Centre for Equal Opportunities and Opposition to Racism, as well as any association that at the time of the facts had a legal personality for at least five years, and which, on the grounds of its statutes, has the objective of defending moral interests and the honour of the resistance or the deported, may act in law in all legal disputes arising from the application of this Act.^[21]}}

Bosnia and Herzegovina

In May 2007 Ekrem Ajanovic, a Bosniak MP in the Bosnian Parliament proposed a legislation on criminalizing the denial of Holocaust, genocide and crimes against humanity. This was the first time that somebody in Bosnia and Herzegovina's Parliament proposed such a legislation. Bosnian Serb MPs voted against this legislation and proposed that such an issue should be resolved within the Criminal Code of Bosnia and Herzegovina.^[22] Following this, on 6 May 2009 Bosniak MPs Adem Huskic, Ekrem Ajanovic and Remzija Kadric proposed to the BH parliament a change to the Criminal Code of Bosnia and Herzegovina where Holocaust, genocide and crimes against humanity denial would be criminalized.^[23] Bosnian Serb MPs have repeatedly been against such a legislation claiming that the law "would cause disagreement and even animosity" according to SNSD member Lazar Prodanovic.^[24]

Czech Republic

In the Czech Republic, Holocaust denial and denial of communist-perpetrated atrocities is illegal.

§ 260 (1) The person who supports or spreads movements oppressing human rights and freedoms or declares national, race, religious or class hatred or hatred against other group of persons will be punished by prison from 1 to 5 years. (2) The person will be imprisoned from 3 to 8 years if: a) he/she commits the crime mentioned in paragraph (1) in print, film, radio, television or other similarly effective manner, b) he/she commits the crime as a member of an organized group c) he/she commits the crime in a state of national emergency or state of war.

§ 261 The person who publicly declares sympathies with such a movement mentioned in § 260, will be punished by prison from 6 months to 3 years.

§ 261a The person who publicly denies, puts in doubt, approves or tries to justify Nazi or communist genocide or other crimes of Nazis or communists will be punished by prison of 6 months to 3 years.^[25]}}

France

In France, the Gayssot Act, voted for on July 13, 1990, makes it illegal to question the existence of crimes that fall in the category of crimes against humanity as defined in the London Charter of 1945, on the basis of which Nazi leaders were convicted by the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg in 1945–46. When the act was challenged by Robert Faurisson, the Human Rights Committee upheld it as a necessary means to counter possible antisemitism.^[26] Similarly, the applications of Pierre Marais and Roger Garaudy were rejected by the European Court of Human Rights, in 1996 and 2003.^[27]

In 2012, the Constitutional Council of France ruled that to extend the Gayssot Act to the Armenian Genocide denial was unconstitutional because it violated the freedom of speech.^[28]^[29] The Gayssot Act itself, however, was found consistent with the Constitution four years later.^[30]

Art 8. – Article 24 of the Law on the Freedom of the Press of 29 July 1881 is supplemented by the following provisions:

In the event of judgment for one of the facts envisaged by the preceding subparagraph, the court will be able moreover to order:

Except when the responsibility for the author of the infringement is retained on the base for article 42 and the first subparagraph for article 43 for this law or the first three subparagraphs for article 93-3 for the law No 82-652 for July 29, 1982 on the audio-visual communication, the deprivation of the rights enumerated to the 2o and 3o of article 42 of the penal code for imprisonment of five years maximum;

Art 9. – As an amendment to Article 24 of the law of July 29, 1881 on the freedom of the press, article 24 (a) is written as follows:

Art 13. – It is inserted, after article 48-1 of the law of July 29, 1881 on the freedom of the press, article 48-2 thus written:

Germany

§ 130 Incitement to hatred

In Germany, Volksverhetzung ("incitement of the people")^[32]^[33] is a concept in German criminal law that bans incitement to hatred against segments of the population. It often applies to (though not limited to) trials relating to Holocaust denial in Germany. In addition, Strafgesetzbuch § 86a outlaws various symbols of "unconstitutional organisations", such as Nazi symbolism or the ISIS flag.

(3) Whosoever publicly or in a meeting approves of, denies or downplays an act committed under the rule of National Socialism of the kind indicated in section 6 (1) of the Code of International Criminal Law, in a manner capable of disturbing the public peace shall be liable to imprisonment not exceeding five years or a fine.^[34]^[35]

(4) Whosoever publicly or in a meeting disturbs the public peace in a manner that violates the dignity of the victims by approving of, glorifying, or justifying National Socialist rule of arbitrary force shall be liable to imprisonment not exceeding three years or a fine.^[34]^[35]

The definition of section 6 of the Code of Crimes against International Law referenced in the above § 130 is as follows:

(1) Whoever with the intent of destroying as such, in whole or in part, a national, racial, religious or ethnic group:

Other sections

Whoever disparages the memory of a deceased person shall be punished with imprisonment for not more than two years or a fine.^[37]}}

(1) An insult shall be prosecuted only upon complaint. If the act was committed through dissemination of writings (Section 11 subsection (3)) or making them publicly accessible in a meeting or through a presentation by radio, then a complaint is not required if the aggrieved party was persecuted as a member of a group under the National Socialist or another rule by force and decree, this group is a part of the population and the insult is connected with this persecution. The act may not, however, be prosecuted ex officio if the aggrieved party objects. When the aggrieved party deceases, the rights of complaint and of objection devolve on the relatives indicated in Section 77 subsection (2). The objection may not be withdrawn.

(2) If the memory of a deceased person has been disparaged, then the relatives indicated in Section 77 subsection (2), are entitled to file a complaint. If the act was committed through dissemination of writings (Section 11 subsection (3)) or making them publicly accessible in a meeting or through a presentation by radio, then a complaint is not required if the deceased person lost his life as a victim of the National Socialist or another rule by force and decree and the disparagement is connected therewith. The act may not, however, be prosecuted ex officio if a person entitled to file a complaint objects. The objection may not be withdrawn. […]^[38]}}

Greece

In September 2014, with a vote of 54 out of 99 present of the 300-member Hellenic Parliament (the body was in summer session at the time), Greece amended its 1979 law 'On the penalization of actions or activities intending unto racial discrimination' (N.927/1979) to make malicious denial of the Holocaust and other crimes against humanity for the purposes of inciting violence, discrimination or hatred or by way of threat or insult, a criminal offense. ^[39] In contrast to other European countries, the Greek law is not a blanket ban on expressing the opinion that a genocide did not take place, but rather requires an additional condition of intending to cause violence, incite hatred or threaten or insult a protected group.

1. Whoever intentionally, publicly, verbally or in print, over the internet or through any other medium or means, incites, causes, arouses or solicits acts or activities which are capable of causing discrimination, hatred or violence against a person or group of persons, who are identified on the bases of race, colour, religion, genealogical background, national or ethnic origins, sexual orientation, gender identity or disability, in a way that endangers public order or poses a threat to the life, liberty or bodily integrity of such persons, shall be imprisoned for between three (3) months and (3) years and fined between five and twenty thousand (5.000 - 20.000) euros.

1. Whoever intentionally, publicly, verbally or in print, over the internet or through any other medium or means, approves, ridicules or maliciously denies the existence or seriousness of crimes of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, the Holocaust and other crimes of Nazism which have been recognised by decisions of international courts or the Hellenic Parliament and this behaviour is targeted against a group of people, or member thereof, which is identified on the basis of race, colour, religion, genealogical background, national or ethnic origins, sexual orientation, gender identity or disability, when this behaviour is expressed in a way that is capable of inciting violence or hatred or is of a threatening or insulting character against such a group or a member thereof, is subject to the penalties of paragraph 1 of the previous article.^[40]}}

This law was harshly criticised at the time of its passage for its vague language and alleged infringement of freedom of expression. In a letter signed by 139 Greek historians, they argued that "as international experience has shown, such provisions lead down dangerous paths: they critically wound the democratic and inalienable right to freedom of speech, while simultaneously not being at all effective in terms of fighting racism and nazism. Indeed, they often lead to the opposite result, allowing the enemies of democracy to present themselves to public opinion as "victims" of censorship and authoritarianism. The conditions set forth in the bill, being highly vague and fluid, are unfortunately not a guarantee." ^[41]

The first prosecution under Article 2 of the law was brought against German historian Heinz A. Richter, who was tried in absentia for denying Nazi atrocities in Crete during World War II. The court found Richter not guilty on the grounds that, while his work was proven to contain historical inaccuracies, there was no evidence he intended to incite hatred against the people of Crete ^[42] and that the 2014 law was unconstitutional, as it violated the principle of freedom of speech. ^[43]. Though the finding of unconstitutionality is not finally binding, as it was issued by a court of first instance, as of March 2018, no one has been successfully convicted in Greece for genocide denial under this law ^[44].

Hungary

The National Assembly of Hungary declared the denial or trivialization of the Holocaust a crime punishable by up to three years' imprisonment on February 23, 2010.^[45] The law was signed by President László Sólyom in March 2010.^[46] On June 8, 2010, the newly elected Fidesz-dominated parliament changed the formulation of the law to "punish those, who deny the genocides committed by national socialist or communist systems, or deny other facts of deeds against humanity".^[47] The word "Holocaust" is no longer in the law.

In 2011, the first man was charged with Holocaust denial in Budapest. The Court sentenced the man to 18 months in prison, suspended for three years, and probation. He also had to visit either Budapest's memorial museum, Auschwitz or Yad Vashem in Jerusalem. He chose his local Holocaust Memorial Center and had to make three visits in total and record his observations.^[48]

In January 2015, the court ordered far-right on-line newspaper Kuruc.info to delete its article denying the Holocaust published in July 2013, which was the first ruling in Hungary of its kind.^[49] The Association for Civil Liberties (TASZ) offered free legal aid to the website as a protest against restrictions on freedom of speech,^[50] but the site refused citing the liberal views of the association, and also refused to delete the article.^[51]

Israel

In Israel, a law to criminalize Holocaust denial was passed by the Knesset on July 8, 1986.

Definitions 1. In this Law, "crime against the Jewish people" and "crime against humanity" have the same respective meanings as in the "Nazis and Nazi Collaborators Law", 5710-1950.

Prohibition of Denial of Holocaust 2. A person who, in writing or by word of mouth, publishes any statement denying or diminishing the proportions of acts committed in the period of the Nazi regime, which are crimes against the Jewish people or crimes against humanity, with intent to defend the perpetrators of those acts or to express sympathy or identification with them, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term of five years.

Prohibition of publication of expression for sympathy for Nazi crimes 3. A person who, in writing or by word of mouth, publishes any statement expressing praise or sympathy for or identification with acts done in the period of the Nazi regime, which are crimes against the Jewish people or crimes against humanity, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term of five years.

Permitted publication 4. The publication of a correct and fair report of a publication prohibited by this Law shall not be regarded as an offence thereunder so long as it is not made with intent to express sympathy or identification with the perpetrators of crimes against the Jewish people or against humanity.

Filing of charge 5. An indictment for offences under this Law shall only be filed by or with the consent of the Attorney-General.^[52]}}

Italy

The Italian parliament, extending an anti-racism law from 1975, approved Law 16 June 2016 n. 115, criminalizing the spreading of Holocaust denial and making conviction for the crime subject to imprisonment for two to six years. ^[53]^[54]

Liechtenstein

Although not specifically outlining national socialist crimes, item five of section 283 of Liechtenstein's criminal code prohibits the denial of genocide.

Whoever publicly denies, coarsely trivialises, or tries to justify genocide or other crimes against humanity via word, writing, pictures, electronically transmitted signs, gestures, violent acts or by other means shall be punished with imprisonment for up to two years.^[55]}}

Lithuania

Luxembourg

In Luxembourg, Article 457-3 of the Criminal Code, Act of 19 July 1997 outlaws Holocaust denial and denial of other genocides.^[57] The punishment is imprisonment for between 8 days and 6 months and/or a fine.^[57] The offence of "negationism and revisionism" applies to:

Netherlands

While Holocaust denial is not explicitly illegal in the Netherlands, the courts consider it a form of spreading hatred and therefore an offence.^[58] According to the Dutch public prosecution office, offensive remarks are only punishable by Dutch law if they equate to discrimination against a particular group.^[59] The relevant laws of the Dutch penal code are as follows:

Poland

In Poland, Holocaust denial and the denial of communist crimes is punishable by law.

He who publicly and contrary to facts contradicts the crimes mentioned in Article 1, clause 1 shall be subject to a fine or a penalty of deprivation of liberty of up to three years. The judgment shall be made publicly known.

1. the registration, collection, access, management and use of the documents of the organs of state security created and collected between 22 July 1944 and 31 December 1989, and the documents of the organs of security of the Third Reich and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics concerning:

2. the rules of procedure as regards the prosecution of crimes specified in point 1 letter a),

Portugal

Although denial of the Holocaust is not expressly illegal in Portugal, Portuguese law prohibits denial of war crimes if used to incite to discrimination.

2 — Whoever in a public meeting, in writing intended for dissemination, or by any means of mass media or computer system whose purpose is to disseminate:

with intent to incite to racial, religious or sexual discrimination or to encourage it, shall be punished with imprisonment from six months to five years.^[63]}}

Romania

In Romania, Emergency Ordinance No. 31 of March 13, 2002 prohibits Holocaust denial. It was ratified on May 6, 2006. The law also prohibits racist, fascist, xenophobic symbols, uniforms and gestures: proliferation of which is punishable with imprisonment from between six months to five years.

Article 3. – (1) Establishing a fascist, racist or xenophobic organisation is punishable by imprisonment from 5 to 15 years and the loss of certain rights.

Article 4. – (1) The dissemination, sale or manufacture of symbols either fascist, racist or xenophobic, and possession of such symbols is punished with imprisonment from 6 months to 5 years and the loss of certain rights.

Article 5. – Promoting the culture of persons guilty of committing a crime against peace and humanity or promoting fascist, racist or xenophobic ideology, through propaganda, committed by any means, in public, is punishable by imprisonment from 6 months to 5 years and the loss of certain rights.

Article 6. – Denial of the Holocaust in public, or to the effects thereof is punishable by imprisonment from 6 months to 5 years and the loss of certain rights.^[64]}}

Russia

In May 2014, Russia's President Vladimir Putin signed a law making the denial of Nazi crimes and "wittingly spreading false information about the activity of the USSR during the years of World War Two" or portraying Nazis as heroes a criminal offence.^[65]^[66]

Slovakia

In Slovakia, Holocaust denial has been a crime since 2001 (law 485/2001), and the penal law (300/2005) specifies in §422d that "who publicly denies, denies, approves or tries to justify the Holocaust, crimes of regimes based on fascist ideology, crimes of regimes based on communist ideology or crimes of other similar movements that use violence, the threat of violence or the threat of other serious harm with the aim of suppressing the fundamental rights and freedoms of persons shall be punished by imprisonment of six months to three years".

Spain

Genocide denial was illegal in Spain until the Constitutional Court of Spain ruled that the words "deny or" were unconstitutional in its judgement of November 7, 2007.^[67] As a result, Holocaust denial is legal in Spain, although justifying the Holocaust or any other genocide is an offence punishable by imprisonment in accordance with the constitution.^[68]

1. Those who, with the intention to total or partially destroy a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, perpetrate the following acts, will be punished:

2. The diffusion by any means of ideas or doctrines that ~~deny or~~ justify the crimes in the previous section of this article, or tries the rehabilitation of regimes or institutions which they protect generating practices of such, will be punished with a prison sentence of one to two years.^[69]}}

Switzerland

Holocaust denial is not expressly illegal in Switzerland, but the denial of genocide and other crimes against humanity is an imprisonable offence.

Whoever publicly, by word, writing, image, gesture, acts of violence or any other manner, demeans or discriminates against an individual or a group of individuals because of their race, their ethnicity or their religion in a way which undermines human dignity, or on those bases, denies, coarsely minimizes or seeks to justify a genocide or other crimes against humanity [...] shall be punished with up to three years' imprisonment or a fine.^[70]}}

European Union

The European Union's Executive Commission proposed a European Union-wide anti-racism xenophobia law in 2001, which included the criminalization of Holocaust denial. On July 15, 1996, the Council of the European Union adopted the Joint action/96/443/JHA concerning action to combat racism and xenophobia.^[71]^[72] During the German presidency there was an attempt to extend this ban.^[73] Full implementation was blocked by the United Kingdom and the Nordic countries because of the need to balance the restrictions on voicing racist opinions against the freedom of expression.^[74] As a result, a compromise has been reached within the EU and while the EU has not prohibited Holocaust denial outright, a maximum term of three years in jail is optionally available to all member nations for "denying or grossly trivialising crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes".^[75]^[76]

The EU extradition policy regarding Holocaust denial was tested in the UK during the 2008 failed extradition case brought against the suspected Holocaust denier Frederick Toben^[77] by the German government. As there is no specific crime of Holocaust denial in the UK, the German government had applied for Toben's extradition for racial and xenophobic crimes. Toben's extradition was refused by the Westminster Magistrates' Court, and the German government withdrew its appeal to the High Court.

The text establishes that the following intentional conduct will be punishable in all EU Member States:

Member States may choose to punish only conduct which is either carried out in a manner likely to disturb public order or which is threatening, abusive or insulting.

The reference to religion is intended to cover, at least, conduct which is a pretext for directing acts against a group of persons or a member of such a group defined by reference to race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin.

Member States will ensure that these conducts are punishable by criminal penalties of a maximum of at least between 1 and 3 years of imprisonment.^[78]}}

Prosecutions and convictions

Laws against Holocaust denial have been enforced in most jurisdictions that have them. Convictions and sentencings include:

See also

References

1. ^D D Guttenplan, Should Freedom of Speech Stop at Holocaust Denial? {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115074249/http://www.indexonline.org/en/news/articles/2005/1/europe-should-freedom-of-speech-stop-at-holo.shtml |date=January 15, 2008 }}, Index of Free Expression, 2005.
2. ^{{citation|author=Whine, Michael|title=Expanding Holocaust Denial and Legislation Against It|publisher=Jewish Political Studies Review|date=Spring 2008|url=http://jcpa.org/article/expanding-holocaust-denial-and-legislation-against-it/}}
3. ^János Kis: Szólássabadság és náci beszéd, Népszabadság, March 30, 1996.
4. ^Fogadatlan prókátorok – A gárdaítélet félreértelmezéseiről, Magyar Narancs, July 23, 2009
5. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mkab.hu/content/en/en3/30_1992.pdf|title=Alkotmánybíróság - Kezdőlap|publisher=|accessdate=6 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421010839/http://www.mkab.hu/content/en/en3/30_1992.pdf|archive-date=21 April 2016|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}
6. ^{{cite court|litigants=X. v. Federal Republic of Germany|court=European Commission of Human Rights|date=16 July 1982}}
7. ^{{cite court|litigants=Lehideux and Isorni v. France|reporter=1998-VII, no. 92; application number 24662/94, case number 55/1997/839/1045|court=European Court of Human Rights|date=23 September 1998|url=http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?action=html&documentId=696122&portal=hbkm&source=externalbydocnumber&table=F69A27FD8FB86142BF01C1166DEA398649}}
8. ^{{cite court|litigants=Faurisson v France|vol=2|reporter=BHRC|opinion=UN Doc. CCPR/C/58/D/550/1993|pinpoint=1|court=United Nations Human Rights Committee|year=1996|url=http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/undocs/html/VWS55058.htm}}
9. ^{{cite journal |title= Is There a New Anti-Semitism? A Conversation with Raul Hilberg |url= http://www.logosjournal.com/issue_6.1-2/hilberg.htm |journal= Logos |volume= 6 |issue= 1–2 |date= Winter–Spring 2007 |accessdate= 30 July 2012 |quote= I have come to the conclusion, not once but several times, that, as far as I am concerned, I do not agree with legislation that makes it illegal to utter pronouncements claiming that there was no Holocaust. I do not want to muzzle any of this because it is a sign of weakness not of strength when you try to shut somebody up. |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://www.webcitation.org/67jjV3tRE?url=http://www.logosjournal.com/issue_6.1-2/hilberg.htm |archivedate= 17 May 2012 |df= }}
10. ^{{cite news |last= Garton Ash |first= Timothy |date= 19 October 2006 |title= This is the moment for Europe to dismantle taboos, not erect them |url= https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2006/oct/19/comment.france |newspaper= The Guardian |accessdate= 30 July 2012 |location=London}}
11. ^{{cite web |last= Singer |first= Peter |date= 1 March 2006 |title= David Irving has a right to free speech, too |url= http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=14791 |publisher= JPost.com |accessdate= 30 July 2012 }}
12. ^{{cite journal |last= Chomsky |first= Noam |date= 28 February 1981 |title= His Right to Say It |url= http://www.chomsky.info/articles/19810228.htm |journal= The Nation |accessdate= 30 July 2012 |quote= [I]t is elementary that freedom of expression (including academic freedom) is not to be restricted to views of which one approves, and that it is precisely in the case of views that are almost universally despised and condemned that this right must be most vigorously defended. }}
13. ^Chomsky, Noam. "His Right to Say It". Noam Chomsky website. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
14. ^Chotiner, Isaac (January 24, 2019) [https://www.newyorker.com/news/the-new-yorker-interview/looking-at-anti-semitism-on-the-left-and-the-right-an-interview-with-deborah-e-lipstadt "Looking at Anti-Semitism on the Left and the Right: An Interview with Deborah E. Lipstadt"] The New Yorker
15. ^{{citation|url=http://www.thejc.com/comment-and-debate/comment/29844/a-bad-law-against-holocaust-denial|title=A bad law against Holocaust denial|author=Adam Lebor|date=March 25, 2010|publisher=Jewish Chronicle}}
16. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com.au/george-brandis-holocaust-denial-would-not-become-legal-under-my-new-laws-2014-3|title=George Brandis: Holocaust Denial Would Not Become Legal Under My New Laws|author=Ben Collins|work=Business Insider Australia|accessdate=6 April 2016}}
17. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/act-news/racial-discrimination-act-changes-would-allow-holocaust-denial-says-shane-rattenbury-20140505-zr4vk.html|title=Racial Discrimination Act changes would allow Holocaust denial, says Shane Rattenbury|work=The Age|accessdate=6 April 2016}}
18. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.efa.org.au/Publish/hreoc.html|title=Letter to HREOC, Oct 1998|publisher=|accessdate=6 April 2016}}
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20. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nachkriegsjustiz.at/service/gesetze/gs_vg_3_1992.php|title=Verfassungsgesetz vom 8. Mai 1945 über das Verbot der NSDAP (Verbotsgesetz 1947) in der Fassung der Verbotsgesetznovelle 1992|publisher=Austrian Research Centre for Post-War Trials|language=German|accessdate=2009-05-29}}
21. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.genocidepreventionnow.org/Home/GPNISSUES/GPNBulletinLAWSAGAINSTDENIALSpecialSection9/tabid/164/ctl/DisplayArticle/mid/971/aid/470/Default.aspx|title=23 MARS 1995. – Loi tendant à réprimer la négation, la minimisation, la justification ou l'approbation du génocide commis par le régime national-socialiste allemand pendant la seconde guerre mondiale.|publisher=juridat.be|language=French|accessdate=2009-05-29}}
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