“Cumbia”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Cumbia {{IPA-es|ˈkumbja|}} is a folkloric rhythm and dance from Colombia.^[1]^[2] By the 1940s cumbia began spreading from the coast to other parts of Colombia alongside other costeña form of music, like porro and vallenato. Clarinetist Lucho Bermúdez helped bring cumbia into the country's interior.^[3] The early spread of cumbia internationally was helped by the number of record companies on the coast. Originally working-class populist music, cumbia was frowned upon by the elites, but as it spread, the class association subsided and cumbia became popular in every sector of society.^[4]. The researcher Guillermo Abadía Morales in his "Compendium of Colombian folklore", Volume 3, # 7, published in 1962, states that "this explains the origin in the zambo conjugation of musical air by the fusion of the melancholy indigenous gaita flute or caña de millo, i.e., Tolo or Kuisí, of Kuna or Kogi ethnic groups, respectively, and the cheerful and impetuous resonance from the African drums. The ethnographic council has been symbolized in the different dancing roles that correspond to each sex."^[5] The presence of these cultural elements can be appreciated thus:

Etymology

The word cumbia has been studied by different authors who attribute different origins and meanings.

Colombian folklorist Delia Zapata Olivella in her publication of 1962, "La Cumbia: Síntesis Musical de la Nación Colombiana, Reseña Histórica y Coreográfica" (Cumbia: Musical Synthesis of the Colombian Nation, Historical and Choreographic Review) notes that the only word similar to cumbia present in the dictionary of the Real Academia de la Lengua Española, is cumbé "a dance of African origin and the musical interpretation of this dance." And that cumbes (without acute accent) is used for black people living in Bata, in Spanish continental Guinea (now Equatorial Guinea).^[7]

The Colombian cultural researcher Jorge Villarreal Diazgranados in his article "La cumbia, el jolgorio y sobre todo el placer" (La cumbia, fun and above all pleasure), published in 1977 states:

Musicologist and folk-researcher Guillermo Abadía Morales, in his 1977 "Compendio general de folclore colombiano" (General Compendium of Colombian folklore), says that cumbia is a shortened form of cumbancha, a word whose root is Kumba, Mandinka demonym, and adds that the Republic of the Congo was called Cumba and its king was called .^[9]

Cuban ethnologist Graciano states that the words Kumba, Kumbe and Koumbi, replacing the letter "k" for "c" (when turned into Spanish) means "drums" or "dances". He adds that cumbé, cumbia and cumba were drums of African origin in the Antilles. On the other hand, he states that cumba - kumba, African word for Bantu or Congos tribes, means "roar", "shock", "shouting", "scandal", "joy". Manuel Zarate adds to this theory in his "Tambor y Socavón" (Drum and Tunnel), as the root of the word cumbia.^[10] Also, for Ortiz, among congos, nkumbi is a drum.^[9]

Regarding the word cumbé the 22nd version of the Diccionário of the Real Academia de la Lengua, published in 2001, it is recorded as "Danza de la Guinea Ecuatorial" (Dance of Equatorial Guinea) and "Son de esta danza" (Music of this dance).^[11]

In 2006, Colombian musician and musicologist Guillermo Carbo Ronderos said that the etymology of the word cumbia is "still controversial" and that "seems to derive from the Bantu word cumbé"^[12]

Origins

Sociologist Adolfo Gonzalez Henriquez, in his work "La música del Caribe colombiano durante la guerra de independencia y comienzos de la República" (Music of the Colombian Caribbean during the war of independence and the beginning of the Republic),^[13] includes a text of Admiral José Prudencio Padilla which records cumbiambas and indigenous gaitas during the festival of John the Baptist in the neighboring town of Arjona, a few days before the naval battle that took place in the Bahía de las Ánimas of Cartagena between the last Spanish resistance and the republican army, military confrontation that sealed the independence of Colombia:

The musician and pedagogue Luis Antonio Escobar, in the chapter "La mezcla de indio y negro" (The mixture of Indian and black) of his book "Música en Cartagena de Indias" (Music in Cartagena de Indias) takes the description of Indian dance who witnessed the navy lieutenant Swedish Carl August Gosselman in Santa Marta, and recorded in his work "Viaje por Colombia: 1825 y 1826" (Journey through Colombia: 1825 and 1826) as proof that at least in the second decade of the nineteenth century the gaita ensemble existed already in Santa Marta, the same that appears in Cartagena and other coastal cities with black musical elements that resulted in cumbia:^[14]

La orquesta es realmente nativa y consiste en un tipo que toca un clarinete de bambú de unos cuatro pies de largo, semejante a una gaita, con cinco huecos, por donde escapa el sonido; otro que toca un instrumento parecido, provisto de cuatro huecos, para los que solo usa la mano derecha, pues en la izquierda tiene una calabaza pequeña llena de piedrecillas, o sea una maraca, con la que marca el ritmo. Este último se señala aún más con un tambor grande hecho en un tronco ahuecado con fuego, encima del cual tiene un cuero estirado, donde el tercer virtuoso golpea con el lado plano de sus dedos.

A los sonidos constantes y monótonos que he descrito se unen los observadores, quienes con sus cantos y palmoteos forman uno de los coros más horribles que se puedan escuchar. En seguida todos se emparejan y comienzan el baile.

Este era una imitación del fandango español, aunque daba la impresión de asemejarse más a una parodia. Tenía todo lo sensual de él pero sin nada de los hermosos pasos y movimientos de la danza española, que la hacen tan famosa y popular.|Carl August Gosselman (1801-1843), Viaje por Colombia: 1825 y 1826.^[15]}}

The orchestra is really native and consists of a guy who plays a bamboo clarinet about four feet long, like a gaita, with five holes, through which escapes the sound; another that plays a similar instrument, with four holes, for which he only uses his right hand because the left has a small pumpkin full of pebbles, a maraca, that sets the pace. The rhythm is marked even more with a large drum made in a fire-hollowed trunk, on top of which there is a stretched hide, where the third virtuoso hits the flat side of his fingers.

To the constant and monotonous sounds that I have described already join the observers, who with their singing and clapping form one of the most horrible choirs that can be heard. Then all pair up and start dancing.

This was an imitation of Spanish fandango, although it seemed to be more like a parody. It had every sensual detail from the Spanish dance but without any of its beautiful steps and movements, that make it so famous and popular.}}

In the description of the writer José María Samper during his trip down the Magdalena River in 1879, the constituent elements of dance and music on the Magdalena River, instruments and elements of dance cumbia are identified:^[16]

In his work 'Lecturas locales (Local Readings) (1953), the barranquillero historian Miguel Goenaga barranquillero describes the cumbia and its cumbiamba circles in Barranquilla around 1888:

Controversy

The origin of cumbia has been the subject of argument between those who attribute an indigenous ethno-musical origin, geographically located in the region of Depression Momposina and those who argue the thesis of origin black African in Cartagena or even in Africa itself. The first, represented by personalities like the composer José Barros, writers like Jocé G. Daniels, sociologists like Orlando Fals Borda and historians as Gnecco Rangel Pava, and the latter by the folklorist Delia Zapata Olivella.^[7]^[22]

In 1998, in his article "La cumbia, emperadora del Pocabuy" (La cumbia, Empress of Pocabuy) the writer Jocé G. Daniels theorizes that the cumbia was "el aliciente espiritual de los indios" (the spiritual attraction of the Indians) to associate the flutes used in the celebrations of the Chimilas, pocigueycas and pocabuyes in the territories of the current populations of Guamal, Ciénaga and El Banco, with the primitive cumbia gaita, based on the report sent by the perpetual governor Lope de Orozco to the king in 1580, about the Province of Santa Marta, which recounts that "los yndios i yndias veben y asen fiestas con una caña a manera de flauta que se meten en la boca para tañer y producen una mucica como mui trayda del infierno" (The Indians drink and party with a cane that is used as a flute, which they put in their mouths to be played and that produces a music that seems to come from the very hell) (sic).^[19]

The banqueño songwriter Antonio Garcia presented in 1997 the following theory about the birth of cumbia: "Las tribus dedicadas a la pesca y la agricultura, en sus rituales fúnebres, especialmente cuando moría algún miembro de la alta jerarquía de la tribu, todos los miembros se reunían al caer la noche alrededor de una fogata, en el centro del círculo se colocaba a una mujer embarazada que era símbolo de la nueva vida, quien iniciaba una danza con el ritmo suave y melancólico de la flauta de millo, esta ceremonia se prolongaba por varias horas y terminaba por sumir en el más grande éxtasis a todos los que estaban allí reunidos y así nació la cumbia" (The tribes engaged in fishing and agriculture, in their funeral rituals, especially when someone in the hierarchy of the tribe died, gathered all members at nightfall around a campfire in the center of the circle stood a pregnant woman who was a symbol of new life, who started a dance with the soft and melancholic rhythm from flute of millo, this ceremony was prolonged for several hours and ended up plunging into the greatest ecstasy to all who were gathered there and cumbia was born). At the same meeting, José Barros said, product of the oral tradition received from the Indians: "The cumbia was born in funeral ceremonies that Chimillas Indians celebrated in the country of Pocabuy when one of its leaders died" (La cumbia nació en las ceremonias fúnebres que los indios Chimillas celebraban en el país de Pocabuy cuando moría uno de sus jerarcas). Barros also holds in relation to dance: "The idea of dancing in a circular motion has to do with the custom of the Chimilas Indians who danced around the coffin of one of their leaders, what they did counter-clockwise, what meant one-way trip).^[5] Daniels adds that the musical airs related to the origin of the cumbia "had their peak between Chymilas, Pocigueycas (Ponqueycas) and Pocabuyes, i.e., in the actual populations of Guamal, Cienaga and El Banco. Cumbia reached its development with the elements provided by Bemba colorá blacks and whites, cunning and canny.".^[12]^[19]

To researchers of indigenous cultures, the ethno-musical mixture that gives rise to the cumbia occurs during the Colony in the native country of Pocabuy (current populations of El Banco, Guamal, Menchiquejo and San Sebastian in the Magdalena, Chiriguaná and Tamalameque in the Cesar and Mompox, Chilloa, Chimi and Guataca in Bolívar Department) located in the current Caribbean region of Colombia, in the upper valley of Magdalena region the Mompox Depression (including the cultures of La Sabana (Sucre),La Sabana and the Sinú River, north to Pincoya), product of the musical and cultural fusion of Indigenous, Afro-Colombian slaves ^[19] and, on a lesser extent, of Spaniards,^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22] as referred by it historians Orlando Fals Borda in his book Mompox y Loba,^[23] and Gnecco Rangel Pava in his books El País de Pocabuy^[24] and Aires Guamalenses.^[21]^[25] The Pocabuy are mentioned in several recordings, although the most famous mention corresponds to the chorus of the song "Cumbia de la paz" (Cumbia of peace) recorded by "Chico" Cervantes:

For the writer Jocé G. Daniels, is "ironic" that people have "tried to foist a Kumbé Bantú origin to cumbia." ^[19] Researchers question that if the cumbia came from African rhythms, in other parts of America where blacks came from all over Africa as slaves, as the United States, there should be cumbia, or at least something similar. J. Barros says, "cumbia does not have a single hint of Africa. That's easy to check: the United States, which received so many thousands of black Africans does not have anything like cumbia in its folkloric manifestations. The same happens with the Antillean countries. I wonder why if the cumbia is African and entered through La Boquilla, like Manuel and Delia Zapata Olivella Dsay, in Puerto Tejada, for example, where there are also black people, and throughout the Pacific, cumbia is not a rhythm or appears in compositions ... I, who have been in contact with Pocabuyanos Indians since I was eight, who have had the opportunity since I was a child to interact with indigenous wome of 80 to 90 years telling her ritual, the cumbia ritual, I can certify the above, that the cumbia appeared every time the cacique died and they danced around the dead."

In turn, the Africanists place the emergence of the cumbia to contact the black slaves with Indians in ports like Cartagena, Ciénaga, Santa Marta and Riohacha, mainly in the first, during the celebrations of the Virgen de la Candelaria. The Afro-Colombianists dispute the origin of cumbia, and the place it Cartagena.

Some authors assume that the black element in cumbia comes from cumbé, a bantu rhythm and dance from Bioko island Bioko, Equatorial Guinea.^[12]^[27]

The Africans who arrived as slaves to those regions, to tell the story of their ethnic groups and those famous deeds worthy to be stored in memory, used certain songs that they called areítos, which means "dance singing": putting up candles, they sang the coreo which was like the historical lesson that, after being heard and repeated many times, remained in the memory of all listeners. The center of the circle was occupied by those who gave the lesson singing and those more proficient in handling guacharacas, millos, drums and maracas, to sing with delicacy the music of those songs that suffer a transformation, with time, from being elegiac to exciting, gallant, complainant and amusing.^[21]

The cultural researcher A. Stevenson Samper refers to the work of General Joaquin Posada Gutierrez, "Fiestas de la Candelaria in La Popa" (1865), where the music and dance of the festivities of the Virgen de la Candelaria described in Cartagena and relates the following description with cumbia circle.^[16] The anthropologist Nina S. de Friedemann uses the same text to explain the configuration of cumbia within the scope of slavery in Cartagena de Indias:^[28]

At least until the 1920s, the terms cumbia and mapalé designated the same rhythm in the area of Cartagena de Indias:

Regarding the cantares de vaquería (cowboy songs) as one of the origins of vallenato, the cultural and musical researcher Ciro Quiroz states about cumbia:

Referring to the site of origin of vallenato, Quiroz notes on the site of origin of cumbia:

On the transition of whistles and flutes to the current vallenato instruments, the author says:

On April 16, 1877 La Cumbia Soledeña was founded, one of the most distinguished and traditional cumbia groups.^[16]^[33]

Festivals

The carnaval de Barranquilla is the scenario of multiple cumbia performances and contests ; the main stage of the parades, Vía 40 Avenue, is called the "cumbiódromo" during the days of carnival, in analogy to the Sambadrome in Rio de Janeiro and other Brazilian cities.^[41]

Cultural Heritage of Colombia

In 2006, the cumbia was nominated by the magazine Semana and the Ministry of Culture as a cultural symbol of Colombia, being in the position twelve of fifty candidates.^[12]

In 2013 the Congress of Colombia declared the National Festival of the Cumbia Jose Barros of El Banco, Magdalena cultural heritage of the Nation.^[42]

Since 2013, the mayor of Guamal, Magdalena (municipality located in the territory of the former nation of Pocabuy), Alex Ricardo Rangel Arismendi, promotes the project to declare the cumbia as Intangible Cultural Heritage of the Nation Colombiana.^[43]^[44]

In Colombia today

The cumbia is present on the Caribbean coast, in the subregion around the Magdalena River delta invested, the Montes de María and riverine populations, with its epicenter in the Depresión momposina seat of ancient Pocabuy Indigenous country.

Traditional cumbia is preserved and considered representative of the Colombian identity, especially on the northern Caribbean coast.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} The best representation of traditional Cumbia is shown every year on the Festival de la Cumbia in El Banco, Magdalena.^[35] The festival was created by one of the most important Colombian Cumbia composers, Jose Barros, in order to preserve the original rhythms of traditional Cumbia music. Modern forms of cumbia are also combined with other genres like vallenato, electronica or rock. This mixing of genres is found in the music of modern artists, such as Carlos Vives, Bomba Estéreo, Andrés Cabas, and Humberto Pernett.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

Since the 1980s, in the city of Medellín, there has been growing interest among young and middle-aged people in "rescuing" the masterpieces of the '50s. It is the only city in Colombia where ballroom numbers of Cumbia, Porro and Gaita (an orchestrated variant of Porro Pelayero, or Palitiao) are still widely enjoyed and danced to by all ages of all social classes.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

Diffusion in Latin America

The most fruitful of Colombian music industry is given time in the 1960s, it began with the founding of Discos Fuentes in 1934, the Discos Sonolux in 1949 and soon after Discos Victoria. Since the 1940s, orchestras like Lucho Bermudez, Los Corraleros de Majagual, Los Hispanos or Los Graduados took the cumbia to Peru, where it became more known with groups such as Los Mirlos, Los Destellos, Juaneco y Su Combo or Cuarteto Continental who were the first to give a proper rhythm to the Peruvian cumbia using as the main instrument electric guitars. Thanks to this it becomes much better known in Argentina, El Salvador, Mexico, Ecuador, Chile, Venezuela, among other. This led local musicians to give rise to variants of cumbia as a result of its fusionr with rhythms of each nation such as Argentine cumbia, Mexican cumbia, Salvadoran cumbia, etc.

Argentina

Cumbia and porro rhythms were introduced by Lucho Bermudez, who in 1946 recorded for RCA Víctor in Argentina 60 of his compositions with musicians provided by Eduardo Armani and Eugene Nobile. In the early 1960s, Bovea y sus vallenatos move to Argentina and popularizes cumbia in the country; the same was done by the Cuarteto Imperial, a Colombian band nationalized Argentine. The country has contributed musical compositions and own variations Cumbia villera, which resonates particularly with the poor and marginalized dwellers of villas miseria, (shanty towns, and slums); lyrics typically glorify theft and drug abuse. Undoubtedly the most refined version of Argentine cumbia is called Santa Fe cumbia or cumbia with guitar. In this style the main instrument is the guitar and its compositions are more complex. In the Santa Fe cumbia schemes of two or three simple chords and lyrics about dancing are abandoned, and melancholy lyrics and atypical chords are explored. Its creator, Juan Carlos Denis, is considered a hero of the local music. His creation became popular in 1978 with his album "A mi gente" and the band "Los del bohío".

Pablo Lescano, ex-member of Amar Azul and founder of Flor Piedra and Damas Gratis is known to be the creator of the cumbia villera "sound". However, a lighter form of cumbia enjoyed widespread popularity in Argentina during the 1990s. Antonio Rios (ex-Grupo Sombras, ex-Malagata) is a good representative of the Argentinian cumbia from the 1990s. The emergence of cumbia as a massively popular form of music in Argentina came perhaps with the release of Tarjetita de Invitacion by Adrian y Los Dados Negros in 1988 which was certified platinum, a first back then for a cumbia act.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

Bolivia

The cumbia sound from Bolivia usually incorporates Afro-Bolivian Saya beats and tecnocumbia.

Cumbia marimbera (Central America)

In the south and southeast of Mexico (states of Chiapas and Oaxaca) is traditional the use of the modern marimba (Percussion instrument made of native wood from Guatemala) as this instrument was developed in the region, extending its use to much of Central America, particularly in Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua. Since the early 1940s, several Central American composers created music pieces using the rhythm of cumbia giving an original touch.

Among the main drivers of the cumbia are Nicaraguans Victor M. Leiva with "Cumbia piquetona", Jorge Isaac Carballo with "Baila mi cumbia", Jorge Paladino with "Cumbia Chinandega" and groups like Los Hermanos Cortés with "A bailar con Rosita", "Entre ritmos y palmeras" and "Suenan los tambores" and Los Alegres de Ticuantepe with "Catalina". In El Salvador, Los Hermanos Flores with "La cumbia folclórica", "Salvadoreñas" and "La bala". The Guatemalan orchestra "Marimba Orquesta Gallito" is the most famous between cumbia marimbera bands/orchestras. From Mexico, there are orchestras like "Marimba Chiapas" and "Marimba Soconusco".

Chile

In Chile, cumbia was also introduced by recordings made in Colombia. Chilean cumbia was born when Luisín Landáez, a Venezuelan singer, achieved success with songs like "Macondo" or "La Piragua" and when the Colombian Amparito Jiménez recorded in Chile "La pollera colorá", among other songs. Cumbia is one of the most popular dance forms in Chile. They have a style of their own, Chilean cumbia, and some of the most successful orchestras of this genre include Sonora Palacios, Viking 5, Giolito y su Combo, and La Sonora de Tommy Rey. However, Cumbia's popularity has been declining since the success of reggaeton in the early 2000s, losing part of the preferences of the popular sectors of society. However, it has regained popularity in late 2010s. thanks to the new rhythms like Nueva Cumbia Chilena, a particular fusion of cumbia and punk-rock styles.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

Nowadays, Cumbia is gaining new attention as a result of emergence of acts formed by younger musicians usually labelled as "La Nueva Cumbia Chilena" (The new Chilean Cumbia), including bands such as Chico Trujillo, Banda Conmoción, Juana Fe, Sonora Barón, Sonora de Llegar, Chorizo Salvaje, Sonora Tomo como Rey, and Villa Cariño, among others. These new bands offer some of the classic tones and sounds of Chilean cumbia blended with rock or other folk Latin American styles.^[45] La Noche and Américo are also very popular acts, although they perform a more traditional style of Chilean cumbia, in some extend related to the style that dominated during the 1990s. The other substyle of the Chilean cumbia is called "sound", and it is the most popular cumbia style in the northern part of the country.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

El Salvador

Orchestras such as Orchestra San Vicente, Los Hermanos Flores and Grupo Bravo perform cumbia with basic instrumentation, replacing accordion with brass instruments and woodwinds, and using traditional percussion and bass guitar.

Mexico

In the 1940s, the Colombian singer Luis Carlos Meyer Castandet emigrated to Mexico, where he worked with the Mexican orchestra director Rafael de Paz. Their album La Cumbia Cienaguera is considered the first cumbia recorded outside Colombia. Meyer Castandet also recorded other hits, including Mi gallo tuerto, Caprichito, and Nochebuena. Colombian cumbia and porro began to become popular in Mexico combined with local sounds, with Tony Camargo creating the beginnings of Mexican cumbia. Later styles include the Technocumbia, tropical Cumbia, Cumbia grupera, Mexican Andean Cumbia, and Cumbia sonidera, which uses synthesizers and electric batteries.

In the 1960s, Mike Laure incorporated rock and roll into cumbia, to create a new style.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

In the 1970s, Aniceto Molina emigrated to Mexico, where he joined the Guerrero group La Luz Roja de San Marcos and recorded many popular tropical cumbias, such as La Cumbia Sampuesana, El Campanero, El Gallo Mojado, El Peluquero, and La Mariscada. Also in the 1970s the Mexican singer Rigo Tovar popularized a fusion of cumbia with ballad.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

Other popular Mexican cumbia composers and performers include Efrén David, Super Grupo Colombia, Grupo Kual, La Tropa Vallenata, Celso Piña Y su Ronda Bogotá, Fito Olivares, Grupo Cañaveral, Los Angeles Azules, Alberto Pedraza, Los Angeles de Charly, Los Caminantes, and Grupo Bronco.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

Nicaragua

Nicaragua became a stronghold of Cumbia music during the 1950s and 1960s. The country has its own variation of cumbia music and dance.^[46] Mostly known for its cumbia chinandegana in the Northwestern section of the country, it has also seen a rise in cumbia music artists on the Caribbean coast like Gustavo Layton.

Panama

Cumbia is a dance and musical genre with strictly folklore and cultural character in Panama.

Peru

Peru, like other American countries, was invaded by the first cumbia recordings made in Colombia from the north and from the capital. During the mid-1960s began to appear on national discography from various music labels like Virrey, MAG, and Iempsa, orchestras like Lucho Macedo and Pedro Miguel y sus Maracaibos. Since the early 60s', the Cumbia Peruana has had great exponents. While initially had strong influences from Colombian cumbia, over time it has achieved a unique and distinctive style with shades or rhythms influenced by rock, Huayno, native dances of the jungle, waltz, bolero, merengue, salsa, etc., we can say that it is continually changing or evolving. The rhythm was understood soon in all regions of the country, prompting some groups to introduce some Peruvian musical elements, making electric guitars protagonists. Contributions from Peru to the cumbia are interpretation, compositions and variations like Tropical andean cumbia; thanks to the contribution of Peruvian cumbia, this genre is known throughout South America.

Peruvian cumbia, particularly from the 1960s to mid-1990s, is generally known as "Chicha", although this definition is quite problematic as both Peruvian cumbia and Chicha currently co-exist and influence each other (good examples include Agua Marina's popular cover of Los Eco's "Paloma Ajena" and Grupo Nectar's cover of Guinda's "Cerveza, Ron y Guinda"). Peruvian cumbia started in the 1960s with groups such as Los Destellos, and later with Juaneco y Su Combo, Los Mirlos, Los Shapis, Cuarteto Continental, Los Diablos Rojos, Pintura Roja, Chacalon y la Nueva Crema and Grupo Néctar. Some musical groups that play Peruvian cumbia today are: Agua Marina, Armonia 10, Agua Bella, and Grupo 5. These groups would be classified as Cumbia but often take songs and techniques from Chicha and Huayno in their stylings or as songs. Grupo Fantasma was a Peruvian-Mexican cumbia group. Andean Cumbia, is a style that combines Andean music and cumbia. This style has even become popular in Mexico, as some groups like Grupo Saya claim to be Cumbia andina mexicana, Mexican Andean Cumbia.

Venezuela

Since the 1950s the cumbia has great success and impact in Venezuela due to its proximity to Colombia and to the emigration of Colombians. Two of the oldest Venezuelan tropical orchestras that begin to perform and record cumbia in the country were Los Melódicos and Billo's Caracas Boys. The most significant contributions have been creating Venezuelan cumbia styles using melodic organs and harps.

See also

References

1. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.plaza-colombia.de/Cumbia-es.html|title=La Cumbia - Plaza Colombia|website=Plaza-colombia.de}}
2. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.ws/lucentum3/musifolk2.html|title= Ritmos de Colombia|author=Eddie Ferreira|website=Geocities.ws}}
3. ^{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zNcJkzg1OuQC&pg=PP1 |title=Oye Como Va!: Hybridity and Identity in Latino Popular Music|first=Deborah Pacini|last=Hernandez|date=25 January 2010|publisher=Temple University Press|accessdate=8 August 2018|via=Google Books}}
4. ^{{cite news|last1=Garsd|first1=Jasmine|title=Cumbia: The Musical Backbone Of Latin America|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/altlatino/2013/09/30/227834004/cumbia-the-musical-backbone-of-latin-america|accessdate=18 May 2016|agency=Alt Latino|publisher=National Public Radio|date=Feb 18, 2015}}
5. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://danzacolombia.org/relato2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213034757/http://danzacolombia.org/relato2.htm|dead-url=yes|archive-date=13 February 2015|title=*** FUNDACIÓN CULTURAL DANZA COLOMBIA ***|date=13 February 2015|accessdate=8 August 2018}}
6. ^Garay, Narciso, Tradiciones y cantares de Panamá: ensayo folklórico, De L'expansion Belge, 1930, Belgium. p. 294
7. ^¹²{{cite journal |title = La Cumbia: Síntesis Musical de la Nación Colombiana, Reseña Histórica y Coreográfica |author = Delia Zapata Olivella |journal = Revista Colombiana de Folclor |volume = III |issue = 7 |pages = 189–200 |year = 1962 |url = http://www.bibliotecanacional.gov.co/recursos_user/digitalizados/rev_folklore_7_1962_art5.pdf |access-date = 2014-12-12 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923185539/http://www.bibliotecanacional.gov.co/recursos_user/digitalizados/rev_folklore_7_1962_art5.pdf |archive-date = 2015-09-23 |dead-url = yes |df = }}
8. ^{{citation | author = Diazgranados Villarreal, Jorge | title = La cumbia, el jolgorio y sobre todo el placer | language = Spanish | newspaper = Diario del Caribe | location = Barranquilla | year = 1977 | pages = 4–5}}
9. ^¹²{{citation | url = http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/antropologia/saga/saga13a.htm | title = Huellas de africanía y emblemas de nacionalidad | access-date = August 11, 2014 | author = Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090822043803/http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/antropologia/saga/saga13a.htm | archive-date=August 22, 2009}}
10. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.educapanama.edu.pa/aritculos/la-cumbia-en-panam%C3%A1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717135637/http://www.educapanama.edu.pa/aritculos/la-cumbia-en-panam%C3%A1|dead-url=yes|archive-date=17 July 2011|title=La cumbia en Panamá - Educa Panamá|date=17 July 2011|accessdate=8 August 2018}}
11. ^{{cite web|url=http://lema.rae.es/drae/?val=cumb%C3%A9|title=Significado de Cumbé según el Diccionario de la Real Academia de la Lengua.|website=Lema.rae.es|accessdate=8 August 2018}}
12. ^¹²³⁴{{cite web |url = http://www.semana.com/especiales/articulo/la-cumbia/79597-3 |title = La cumbia |access-date = September 7, 2014 |author = Guillermo Carbó Ronderos}}
13. ^¹{{cite journal | title = La música del Caribe colombiano durante la guerra de independencia y comienzos de la República | author = Adolfo González Henríquez | journal = Huellas: Revista de la Universidad del Norte | language = Spanish | year = 2009 | ISSN = 0120-2537 | issue = 80-81-82 | url = http://guayacan.uninorte.edu.co/publicaciones/huellas/ebook/huellasno80_81_82/files/huellas%2080-81-82%20nuevo.pdf | access-date = May 12, 2016 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304211204/http://guayacan.uninorte.edu.co/publicaciones/huellas/ebook/huellasno80_81_82/files/huellas%2080-81-82%20nuevo.pdf | archivedate = March 4, 2016 | df = }}
14. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.musicalafrolatino.com/pagina_nueva_4i1.htm | title = La mezcla de indio y negro | access-date = May 12, 2016 | author = Luis Antonio Escobar | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092033/http://www.musicalafrolatino.com/pagina_nueva_4i1.htm | archivedate = March 4, 2016 | df = }}
15. ^{{cite book | url = http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/historia/viajes/viacolom4.htm | title = Viaje por Colombia: 1825 y 1826 | chapter = Capítulo III: Santa Marta | year = 1981 | access-date = May 12, 2016 | author = Carl August Gosselman }}
16. ^¹²{{cite book | url = http://issuu.com/nandoartetad/docs/carnavaldebquilla_cont_23 | title = Carnaval de Barranquilla, la fiesta sin fin | chapter = La música del Carnaval | pages = 131–150 | access-date = May 12, 2016 | author = Adlai Stevenson Samper}}
17. ^{{cite book | url =http://www.bdigital.unal.edu.co/388/1/Viaje_de_un_colombiano_a_Europa.html#6c | title = Viajes de un Colombiano en Europa I | author = José María Samper | chapter = De Honda a Cartagena | access-date = May 12, 2016}}
18. ^{{cite book| author = Goenaga, Miguel.| title = Lecturas locales – Crónicas de la vieja Barranquilla| year = 1953| publisher = Imprenta Departamental| language = Spanish}}
19. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{Citation | url = http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM-833405 | title = La cumbia, Emperadora de Pocabuy | newspaper = El Tiempo | access-date = May 13, 2016 | author = José G. Daniels }}
20. ^¹{{cite book| author = Ciro Quiroz | title = Vallenato, Hombre y Canto | publisher = Icaro Editores | year = 1983 | page = 38}}
21. ^¹²³{{cite web |url = http://elbancomagdalena.gov.co/cumbia.html |title = Festival de la Cumbia - El Banco Magdalena |access-date = March 17, 2009 |author = Alcaldía de El Banco }}{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
22. ^{{cite book |url = http://www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/etnias/1604/article-82906.html |title = Atlas de las culturas afrocolombianas |year = 2003 |access-date = May 16, 2016 |author = Luz Adriana Maya Restrepo |publisher = Ministerio de educacion nacional |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180922/http://www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/etnias/1604/article-82906.html |archive-date = 2016-03-03 |dead-url = yes |df = }}
23. ^{{cite book | title = Historia doble de la costa: Mompox y Loba | author = Orlando Fals Borda | year = 1979 | publisher = Carlos Valencia Editores}}
24. ^{{cite book | title = El País de Pocabuy | author = Gnecco Rangel Pava | year = 1947 | publisher = Kelly, Bogotá}}
25. ^{{cite book | title = Aires Guamalenses | author = Gnecco Rangel Pava | year = 1948 | publisher = Kelly, Bogotá}}
26. ^{{Citation | title = Entrevista de José Barros | newspaper = Diario del Caribe | page = 14 | year = 1979}}
27. ^{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com.co/books?id=G7RRkYaTVGoC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=cumbia+cumb%C3%A9+guinea&source=bl&ots=GqAKmEWYCo&sig=mBrNkIypxDGvVnJEap3JCUJgHLk&hl=es-419&sa=X&ei=tnT0T6f3HYfA8ASf_NjGBg&ved=0CGsQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=cumbia%20cumb%C3%A9%20guinea&f=false | title = Instrumentos musicales de las etnias de Guinea Ecuatorial | access-date = May 16, 2016 | author = Isabela de Aranzadi | publisher = Apadena | isbn = 978-84-612-0340-6}}
28. ^{{cite book |title = La Saga del Negro: Presencia africana en Colombia |author = Nina S. de Friedemann |chapter = Huellas de africanía y emblemas de nacionalidad |publisher = Santa Fe de Bogotá : Instituto de Genética Humana. Pontificia Universidad Javeriana. Facultad de Medicina |date = 1993 |isbn = 978-9589176092 |language = Spanish |access-date = September 23, 2016 |chapterurl = http://admin.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/antropologia/la-saga-del-negro/huellas-de-africania-emblemas-nacionalidad |url = http://admin.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/antropologia/la-saga-del-negro |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160924095130/http://admin.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/antropologia/la-saga-del-negro |archive-date = 2016-09-24 |dead-url = yes |df = }}
29. ^{{cite book | title = Museo de cuadros de costumbres I | chapter = Fiestas de la Candelaria en La Popa | author = Joaquín Posada Gutiérrez | publisher = Bogotá : F. Mantilla | date = 1886 | url = http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/literatura/cosi/indice.htm | chapterurl = http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/literatura/cosi/cost13.htm | access-date = September 23, 2016}}
30. ^{{cite conference | title = Políticas culturales para Cartagena de Indias: Antípodas para una cultura proscrita | author = Alberto Abello Vives | publisher = Agencia Españolas de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo | conference = Foro de Políticas Culturales para el Desarrollo de Cartagena y Bolívar | year = 2014 | access-date = September 23, 2016 | url = http://www.aecidcf.org.co/MDC/sites/default/files/adjuntos/Ponencia%20Conferencista%20Invitado_Alberto%20Abello.pdf}}
31. ^{{cite book | author = Ciro Quiroz | title = Vallenato, Hombre y Canto | publisher = Icaro Editores | year =1983 | pages = 59}}
32. ^{{cite book | author = Ciro Quiroz | title = Vallenato, Hombre y Canto | publisher = Icaro Editores | year =1983 | pages = 58}}
33. ^{{cite news | author = Nistar Romero Acosta | title = Efraín Mejía Donado, de cumbiambero a Rey Momo | date = January 6, 1997 | url = http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM-543206 | access-date = September 23, 2016 | newspaper = El Tiempo | location = Bogotá, Colombia}}
34. ^{{cite web | title = Cumbia Soledeña | author = Fabian Altahona | url = http://acbia.wordpress.com/2012/02/06/cumbia-soledena-exitos-de-carnaval-polydor-2404041-1-977/ | website = Africolombia's Blog | access-date = September 23, 2016}}
35. ^¹{{cite web|last1=Narvaez|first1=Robert|title=CARNAVAL: The Cumbia Serenade 2016|url=http://barranquillalife.com/carnaval-sirenato-de-la-cumbia-2016/|website=Barranquilla Life|date=February 3, 2016|quote=Sixteen contestants, represented by the various towns in the Department of Atlantico, competed for the title and had an opportunity to represent the Department of Atlantico in the Festival de la Cumbia in Banco, Magdalena.|access-date=May 17, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512154229/http://barranquillalife.com/carnaval-sirenato-de-la-cumbia-2016/|archive-date=May 12, 2016|dead-url=yes|df=mdy-all}}
36. ^{{cite web |title = Festival Nacional de la Cumbia José Barros Palomino |author = Municipio de El Banco |url = http://www.elbanco-magdalena.gov.co/index.shtml?apc=bkxx-1-&x=3003432 |access-date = September 23, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923234847/http://www.elbanco-magdalena.gov.co/index.shtml?apc=bkxx-1-&x=3003432 |archive-date = September 23, 2015 |dead-url = yes |df = mdy-all}}
37. ^{{cite news | title = Festival Nacional de la Cumbia | author = Mario Javier Pacheco | newspaper = El Espectador | location = Bogotá, Colombia | date = July 19, 2011 | url = http://www.elespectador.com/impreso/opinion/columna-285707-festival-nacional-de-cumbia | access-date = September 23, 2016}}
38. ^{{cite news | title = Cereté baila con su festival nacional de la cumbiamba | newspaper = El Tiempo | location = Bogotá, Colombia | date = March 22, 1999 | url = http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM-855391 | access-date = September 23, 2016}}
39. ^{{cite news |title=Para bailar cumbia hay que hacerlo con el alma: Rosell Escorcia Pérez |author=Brenda Romero Martínez |newspaper=El Heraldo |location=Barranquilla, Colombia |date=January 31, 2012 |url=http://www.elheraldo.co/tendencias/para-bailar-cumbia-hay-que-hacerlo-con-el-alma-rosell-escorcia-perez-55268 |archive-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025170109/http://www.elheraldo.co/tendencias/para-bailar-cumbia-hay-que-hacerlo-con-el-alma-rosell-escorcia-perez-55268 |access-date=September 23, 2016 |deadurl=yes |df= }}
40. ^¹{{cite web | title = Cierre de vías por VI Festival de Cumbia Autóctona del Caribe Colombiano | url = http://www.barranquilla.gov.co/movilidad/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4561:cierre-de-vias-por-vi-festival-de-cumbia-autoctona-del-caribe-colombiano&catid=36:boletines&Itemid=30 | author = Alcaldía de Barranquilla | access-date = September 23, 2016}}
41. ^{{cite news | title = Una fiesta hecha empresa | author = Angélica Gallón Salazar | newspaper = El Espectador | location = Bogotá, Colombia | date = November 7, 2007 | url = http://www.elespectador.com/impreso/cuadernilloa/negocios/articuloimpreso-una-fiesta-hecha-empresa | access-date = September 23, 2016}}
42. ^¹{{citation | title = Ley 1701 (Colombian Law) | publisher = Senado de la República de Colombia | date = December 27, 2013 | chapter = Por medio de la cual se reconoce como patrimonio cultural de la Nación al Festival Nacional de la Cumbia José Barros de El Banco, Magdalena y se dictan otras disposiciones | url = http://www.congresovisible.org/proyectos-de-ley/por-medio-de-la-cual-se-reconoce-como-patrimonio-cultural-de-la-nacion-al-festival-nacional-de-la-cumbia-jose-barros-de-el-banco-magdalena-y-se-dictan-otras-disposiciones-festival-nacional-de-cumbia-jose-barros/7077/ | access-date = September 23, 2016}}
43. ^{{cite news | title = Buscan que la cumbia sea Patrimonio Cultural de la Nación | newspaper = El Heraldo | location = Barranquilla, Colombia | year = 2013 | url = http://www.elheraldo.co/tendencias/buscan-que-la-cumbia-sea-patrimonio-cultural-de-la-nacion-115917 | archive-date = July 3, 2013 | archive-url = https://archive.is/20130703183227/http://www.elheraldo.co/tendencias/buscan-que-la-cumbia-sea-patrimonio-cultural-de-la-nacion-115917 | access-date = September 23, 2016 | deadurl = yes | df = }}
44. ^{{cite news |title = Que la cumbia sea Patrimonio Inmaterial de la Nación, buscan autoridades en Magdalena |url = http://www.senalradiocolombia.gov.co/home/actualidad/item/939-que-la-cumbia-sea-patrimonio-inmaterial-de-la-naci%C3%B3n-buscan-autoridades-en-magdalena |date = July 2, 2013 |newspaper = Radio Nacional de Colombia |access-date = September 23, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150503155813/http://www.senalradiocolombia.gov.co/home/actualidad/item/939-que-la-cumbia-sea-patrimonio-inmaterial-de-la-naci%C3%B3n-buscan-autoridades-en-magdalena |archive-date = May 3, 2015 |dead-url = yes |df = mdy-all}}
45. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ar.terra.com/terramagazine/interna/0,,OI1700975-EI8878,00.html|title=Terra - Notícias, esportes, coberturas ao vivo, diversão e estilo de vida|website=Ar.terra.com}}
46. ^National Geographic Cumbia Music {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810100041/http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/genre/content.genre/cumbia_712/en_US |date=2011-08-10 }}