请输入您要查询的百科知识：

　

词条 Legal aspects of ritual slaughter
释义

  1. Scope of regulations

  2. Religious slaughter practice

      Islamic jurisprudence    Jewish jurisprudence  

  3. Historic bans (until 1945)

      Asia    Europe  

  4. European Union

      European Convention on Human Rights    Further EU legislation    Austria    Belgium    Denmark    Finland    France    Germany    Latvia    Luxembourg    Netherlands    Poland    Slovenia    Spain    Sweden    United Kingdom  

  5. Other countries

      Norway    New Zealand    Switzerland    Proposals to extend ban to imports   United States 

  6. See also

  7. References

  8. Further reading

{{For|aspects of ritual slaughter governed by religious law|shechita|dhabiha}}{{use dmy|date=June 2018}}{{use British English|date=June 2018}}{{More citations needed|date=June 2018}}

The legal aspects of ritual slaughter include the regulation of slaughterhouses, butchers, and religious personnel involved with traditional shechita (Jewish) and dhabiha (Islamic). Regulations also may extend to butchery products sold in accordance with kashrut and halal religious law. Governments regulate ritual slaughter, primarily through legislation and administrative law. In addition, compliance with oversight of ritual slaughter is monitored by governmental agencies and, on occasion, contested in litigation.

The most controversial aspect of ritual slaughter is the legality of unstunned slaughter, where animal welfare concerns regularly clash with religious concerns, and split public opinion.[1]

Scope of regulations

In Western countries, law reaches into every stage of ritual slaughter, from the slaughtering of livestock to the sale of kosher or halal meat.[2]

In the United States, for example, courts have ruled that kosher butchers may be excluded from collective bargaining units,[3] a Jewish beit din (court) may forbid trade with disapproved butchers,[4] retail sellers implicitly stipulate their compliance with rabbinic courts,[5] a state law (NY) may incorporate a rabbinical ruling on kosher labeling,[6] and kashrut symbols may be subject to trade infringement laws.[7]

In Jones v. Butz, the action involved "a challenge, under the Free Exercise and Establishment Clauses of the First Amendment, to the Humane Slaughter Act and in particular to the provisions relating to ritual slaughter as defined in the Act and which plaintiffs suggested involved the Government in the dietary preferences of a particular religious (e.g., Orthodox Jews) group. The court held that there is no violation of Establishment Clause because no excessive governmental entanglement and by making it possible for those who wish to eat ritually acceptable meat to slaughter the animal in accordance with the tenets of their faith, Congress neither established the tenets of that faith nor interfered with the exercise of any other."[8]

In the United States religious slaughter is not practiced under any exemption, as is the case in several European legal codes.[9] Instead the Humane Slaughter Act defines religious slaughter by Jews and Muslims as one of two humane methods for killing animals for food:

by slaughtering in accordance with the ritual requirements of the Islamic and Jewish faith or any other religious faith that prescribes a method of slaughter whereby the animal suffers loss of consciousness by anemia of the brain caused by the simultaneous and instantaneous severance of the carotid arteries with a sharp instrument and handling in connection with such slaughtering. the other being using stunning.

The kosher food industry has challenged regulations as an infringement on religious freedom.[10][11]

Secular governments also have sought to restrict ritual slaughter not intended for food consumption. In the US, the most prominent such case is Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah. In this case, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled unconstitutional a local Florida ban on Santería ritual animal sacrifice.[12]

The issue is complicated by allegations of antisemitism and xenophobia.[13][14][15]

Lastly, recent debate in Switzerland has been contentious, in part, because of comparisons by a prominent activist between kosher slaughter and the methods used by Nazis in concentration camps. The metaphor was borrowed from the vegetarian and Nobel Prize laureate Isaac Bashevis Singer who said "I am not a vegetarian for my own health, but for the health of the chickens" and has one of his fictional characters say, "every day is Treblinka for the animals."[16]

Religious slaughter practice

{{Fiqh |hygiene}}{{Main|ritual slaughter}}{{see also|shechita|dhabiha|comparison of Islamic and Jewish dietary laws}}

Some claim that, according to Jewish law and Muslim law, "slaughter is carried out with a single cut to the throat, rather than the more widespread method of stunning with a bolt into the head before slaughter."[17] However, other Jewish and Islamic authorities have stated that stunning is compatible with religious law.[17] The practice of post-cut stunning, meaning that stunning is applied after the animal gets the throat cut, is regarded as a "middle ground".[18]

Islamic jurisprudence

A 1935 fatwa by the Mufti of Dehli declared that stunning does not kill the animal and thus is 'reversible' and allowed under Islamic law.[17] Al-Azhar rector Muhammad el-Tayyeb el-Naggar confirmed in 1982 that stunning would not make the practice un-Islamic.[17] Many Muslim authorities accept reversible stunning prior to the cut, such as electrostunning, or concussion with a roundheaded (mushroom-shaped) hammer.[19][23] In 2014, about 85% of halal meat produced by the Muslim community in the United Kingdom was pre-stunned.[18]{{rp|at=3:38}}

Jewish jurisprudence

According to rabbi Norman Solomon (2000), some Reform Jews regard ethics as more important than diet, and reject the very notion of kosher meat.[17] Within the Conservative (Masorti) denomination of Judaism, there is a broad consensus of accepting meat from animals stunned before slaughter as kosher.[20] With some exceptions, Orthodox Jewish communities uphold the prohibition on stunning before slaughter.[23]

In practice, a requirement for a shohet (Jewish ritual slaughterer) is that the shohet adheres to a high level of religiosity,[21]

[22] Any kind of prestunning for livestock to be slaughtered according to the Jewish Kosher method has not yet been accepted by mainstream, orthodox Judaism. In practice, kosher slaughtering is carried out by orthodox shochtim (authorized slaughterers) because the meat produced by Conservative slaughters from the Conservative denomination would not be acceptable to orthodox practising Jews and the limited market that would accept such meat is not commercially viable.[22][23]

Historic bans (until 1945)

Asia

Some rulers banned all killing on their land for some period each year, including ritual slaughter. Beop of Baekje banned all kinds of killing.[24] Emperor Tenmu、Empress Genshō、Emperor Shōmu banned eating meat in Japan, in 675.[25] Tokugawa Tsunayoshi who was Fifth General Shōgun of Edo (Japan) made animal protection laws and when he died, about 8000 criminals (including 3800 in Edo) who had been convicted of violating the law, were released (see ja:生類憐れみの令).[26][27] According to the Red Annals (Deb-ther Dmar-po), Möngke Khan prohibited meat eating and killing four days each month.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

After conquering Bago in 1559, King Bayinnaung prohibited the practice of halal. Halal slaughter was also forbidden by King Alaungpaya in the 18th century.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

According to the White History of the Tenfold Virtuous Dharma (Arban Buyantu Nom-un Caġan Teüke), Altan Khan ordered the religious code Arban Buyantu Nom-un Cagaja prohibited human and animal sacrifice.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

Europe

In the 1880s, anti-Semites joined forces with Animal Protection Societies to campaign for anti-shechita legislation to be passed in Switzerland, Germany and Scandinavia.[28]

In Switzerland shechitah was forbidden throughout the whole country in 1893 after having been banned in the cantons of Aargau and St. Gallen in 1867 after plebiscites, and later a ban was introduced in the whole of Switzerland after a plebiscite at Federal level. The system of voting on individual policies using referendums (plebiscites) had only recently been introduced.[29][30] and the first plebiscite in Swiss history was on the subject of banning shechita. The government and all the political parties were against the ban, but the popular sentiment won the day.[31]

Norway banned religious slaughter without pre-stunning in 1929.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}[32]

Kosher slaughter was banned in Poland in 1936.[33]

Sweden banned shechita (Jewish ritual slaughter) of cattle in 1937, and of poultry in 1989.[34]Germany banned shechita nationwide three months after Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. There had been a prior ban in the German state of Saxony, and the League of Nations had supported the Jewish Community of Upper Silesia against Hitler in rejecting the attempts by German officials to confiscate shehitah knives and ban Jewish slaughter there as had been done in the German Reich. Bans were introduced in all the countries which the Nazis occupied, as well as in the countries of the Axis allies: Italy and Hungary. Bans introduced by the German Third Reich and by Benito Mussolini were removed by Allied Command when the Allies liberated Europe.[35]

In Religious Freedom: The Right to Practice Shehitah, Munk, Munk and Berman documented every ban introduced in every country in Europe up to 1946, and made an analysis that claims that until the rise of Hitler in 1933, the international campaign to introduce ritual slaughter / shehitah bans had failed because the vast majority of countries where legislation had been proposed rejected the legislation realising the involvement of anti-Semites in the campaign and enacted legislation to stave off bans on Jewish and Muslim slaughter.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

European Union

European Convention on Human Rights

{{Original research section|date=December 2012}}

Article 9 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms is headed – Freedom of thought, conscience and religion.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

1. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief, in worship, teaching, practice and observance.

2. Freedom to manifest one's religion or beliefs shall be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of public safety, for the protection of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.

In those countries that have signed the convention, and, at the same time have enacted laws that effectively ban ritual slaughter have a conflict between the Convention and the law. In international law two principles apply: one being which law was enacted first, the other being the intentions of the lawmakers. (This principle was challenged in Pepper v Hart in the context of the UK.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

The preparatory discussions for Article 9 of the European Convention dealt specifically with Shehitah as the matter was raised by a Jewish pressure group[36] dealt specifically with effective bans on religious slaughter imposed by the Nazi Reich on countries in occupied Europe raised by a Jewish pressure group, and it has been pointed out that in disputed legislation the proper procedure is to refer back to the debates and discussions at the time of drafting the legislation, in order to see clearly what was intended. (reference later). Those countries that are signatories to the Convention and retain effective bans today are not abiding by the convention.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

The European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1953, included sections on religious freedom that in the preliminary discussions, referred specifically to religious ritual slaughter bans.[37]

Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights (1953) provides for a right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion which includes the freedom to manifest a religion or belief in, inter alia, practice and observance, subject only to such restrictions as are "in accordance with law"{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} and "necessary in a democratic society."[38]{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

Further EU legislation

The European Union directive, "European Convention for the Protection of Animals for Slaughter" (1998), generally requires stunning before slaughter, but allows member states to allow exemptions for religious slaughter: "Each Contracting Party may authorize derogations from the provisions concerning prior stunning in the following cases: – slaughtering in accordance with religious rituals...."[39]

Consequently, some member states have banned unstunned ritual slaughter, while others have not. Meat from unstunned animals can be freely exported and imported between member states. There is no EU legal requirement for meat from unstunned animals to be labelled as such, and EU-wide proposals for mandatory labelling have been strongly resisted. This leads to confusion amongst consumers, who often cannot know whether certain products are the result of unstunned ritual slaughter.[40]

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recommended in 2004 that "due to the serious animal welfare concerns associated with slaughter without stunning, pre-cut stunning should always be performed".[41] The 22 June 2009 EU Slaughter Regulation, approved by the EU Agriculture Council, allowed religious slaughter without stunning to continue.[42]

Legal requirements for ritual slaughter by EU member state
State Requirement SinceNotes
AustriaPost-cut stunning required}} 2004 Animal Protection Act 2004 §32.[43]
BelgiumPre-stunning coming soon}} 2018/19 Wallonia will ban unstunned ritual slaughter in September 2018;[52] Flanders will follow in January 2019.[53] Brussels expects to debate a ban in the future.[54]
BulgariaNo stunning required}} [44]
CroatiaNo stunning required}} [44]
CyprusNo stunning required}} The Veterinary Services may grant a derogation on the general requirement of stunned slaughter to a competent religious authority.[43][44]
Czech RepublicNo stunning required}} [44]
DenmarkPre-cut stunning required}} 2014 Only stunned ritual slaughter is allowed.[60] However, unstunned meat may be imported to Denmark, and Danish stunned meat is exported to some countries in the Middle East.[43]
EstoniaPost-cut stunning required}} Post-cut stunning is allowed.[1][43][44]
FinlandSimultaneous stunning required}} 1934[65] Cutting and stunning must happen simultaneously during ritual slaughter.[43][44] In Åland, pre-cut stunning is required.[44]
FranceNo stunning required}}date=June 2018}}
GermanyNo stunning required}} 2002 Islamic unstunned slaughter was banned in 1995, but legalised again in 2002.[69] It is illegal to export unstunned meat.[43]
GreecePost-cut stunning required}} 2017 Animals other than poultry require post-cut stunning during ritual slaughter.[43]
HungaryNo stunning required}} [44]
IrelandNo stunning required}} [44]
ItalyNo stunning required}} [44]
LatviaPost-cut stunning required}} 2009 Post-cut stunning is allowed.[40][43]
LithuaniaNo stunning required}} 2015 Lithuania legalised unstunned ritual slaughter in 2015 in the midst of a trade war with Russia.[43]
LuxembourgNo stunning required}} 2009 Religious exemptions to the 1995 law to stun all animals before slaughter became available in 2009.[43]
MaltaNo stunning required}} [44]
NetherlandsNo stunning required}} 2011 Since 2011, a veterinarian must be present[40] and since 2018, the animal must lose consciousness within 40 seconds, otherwise stunning is required.[45]
PolandNo stunning required}} 2014 A 2013 ban on unstunned slaughter on animal rights grounds was overturned in 2014 on religious freedom grounds.[82]
PortugalNo stunning required}} [44]
RomaniaNo stunning required}} [44]
SlovakiaPost-cut stunning required}} [44]
SloveniaRitual slaughter banned}} 2012 In 2012, Slovenia amended its Animal Welfare Act to ban all forms of ritual slaughter.[43]
SpainNo stunning required}} 2007[87] Stunning requirements are dropped if these are "inconsistent with the rules of the respective religious rite".[87]
SwedenPre-cut stunning required}} 1988[89] Only stunned slaughter is allowed; some Islamic slaughterhouses in Sweden consider this halal.[90]
United KingdomNo stunning required}} Legality is hotly debated.[91]

Austria

Post-cut stunned slaughter was introduced as the minimum in the province of Lower Austria in 2001.[46] The 2004 Animal Protection Act (Bundesgesetz über den Schutz der Tiere; Tierschutzgesetz – TSchG) made post-cut stunning the nationwide mandatory minimum.[43]

Belgium

Unstunned conventional slaughter was banned in Wallonia in June 2018; unstunned ritual slaughter will be banned in September 2018.[47] Unstunned ritual slaughter will be banned in Flanders in January 2019.[48] Brussels still allows for unstunned ritual slaughter, but banned home slaughter in December 2017, and expected to debate a total ban on unstunned slaughter soon.[49]

Denmark

In February 2014, Minister for Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Dan Jørgensen signed a regulation which banned ritual slaughter of animals without prior stunning.[50] Prior to this, religious groups could file for an exemption to the law that required stunning if they wanted to slaughter without prior stunning, although no groups had applied for such exemption. At the time, all halal slaughter in Denmark was performed with prior stunning, while kosher slaughter (which does not allow stunning) had not been practiced in Denmark since around 2004, all kosher meat being imported. In spite of this, the Muslim and Jewish Communities in Denmark strongly opposed the decree, arguing that it constituted an infringement upon religious freedom.[51][52]

Finland

Finland's law on slaughter dates from the 1930s and allows post-stunning thereby permitting kosher slaughter and providing certain legislative protection for some forms of Muslim slaughter. Dhabhiha (halal slaughter) is practised in Finland, but there are not sufficient resources for Jewish slaughter, and all kosher meat is imported.[53] In Åland the law prohibits bleeding to death unless animals have been previously stunned or directly killed.[101]

Paragraph 4 of the 1934 Act (enacted April 14, 1934), reads:

It is forbidden to slaughter a domestic animal in any other way, except to render the animal insensible immediately before bleeding. Whenever religious reasons so demand, let it be allowed by the Ministry of Agriculture, in such a way, that the animal is rendered insensible immediately after the arteries have been swiftly cut, but in such a case the veterinarian of the institution must be present personally to supervise the slaughtering[54]

During 1996, the debate over the practice of shechita (Jewish religious slaughter of animals) in Finland continued. Although a motion to pass a law prohibiting shechita (on animal rights grounds) was defeated in December 1995, thereby allowing the practice to continue in Finland (on the condition that the slaughtering takes place simultaneously with a stunning blow), parties opposed to shehitah were not satisfied. The debate has spanned several years, became an election issue during the 1995 general election and often took on an unpleasant tone, as the proponents of the ban (some of whom were politicians) equated shehitah with female circumcision and mutilation.[55]

France

Ritual slaughter is permitted, with some restrictions.[101]

In Jewish Liturgical Association Cha'are Shalom Ve Tsedek v. France, 27 June 2000,[56] (App No. 27417/95) the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights interpreted Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights in a case involving a lawsuit by Glatt kosher slaughterers against a French law recognizing a non-Glatt association (the ACIP) as having the exclusive right to conduct Jewish ritual slaughter in France.

The Court stated that ritual slaughter is a practice covered by the Article 9's guarantee of the right to manifest religious observance:

It is not contested that ritual slaughter, as indeed its name indicates, constitutes a rite or "rite"...whose purpose is to provide Jews with meat from animals slaughtered in accordance with religious prescriptions, which is an essential aspect of practice of the Jewish religion...It follows that the applicant association can rely on Article 9 of the Convention with regard to the French authorities' refusal to approve it, since ritual slaughter must be considered to be covered by a right guaranteed by the Convention, namely the right to manifest one's religion in observance, within the meaning of Article 9.

The Court then clarified the scope of Article 9, holding that it applies only to restrictions which would prevent consumers from being able to obtain ritually slaughtered meat:

In the Court's opinion, there would be interference with the freedom to manifest one's religion only if the illegality of performing ritual slaughter made it impossible for ultra-orthodox Jews to eat meat from animals slaughtered in accordance with the religious prescriptions they considered applicable. But that is not the case. It is not contested that the applicant association can easily obtain supplies of "glatt" meat in Belgium. Furthermore, it is apparent from the written depositions and bailiffs' official reports produced by the interveners that a number of butcher's shops operating under the control of the ACIP make meat certified "glatt" by the Beth Din available to Jews.[56]

Thus, under the Court of Human Rights' interpretation (not unanimous) of the European Convention on Human Rights in the Cha'are Shalom case, restrictions on ritual slaughter are permissible, but only if they do not prevent religious adherents from obtaining religiously slaughtered meat.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

Germany

On January 15, 2002 the German Federal Constitutional Court held that the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany provides a broader guarantee of human rights in the area of religious freedom than the European Convention on Human Rights. In an appeal by a Turkish citizen who practiced Islamic ritual slaughter, the German court struck down Germany's former ban on ritual slaughter,[57] holding that the German Basic Law's guarantee of religious freedom prohibited the German government from applying a law requiring stunning prior to slaughter to observant Muslims who practice ritual slaughter for religious reasons, and that the Basic Law's guarantee of religious freedom applies to slaughterers as well as consumers of meat.[58][59]

The German court held that under Article 2.1 of the German Basic Law, religious slaughterers have a distinct fundamental right to practice a religiously-recognized vocation. It also explained that merely permitting importation of ritually slaughtered meat is inadequate to protect the religious rights of individuals under Articles 4.1 and 4.2 of the German Basic Law (Constitution) because personal contact is important to ensuring compliance with religious requirements. It held that an exemption from laws that conflicted with this was therefore mandated:

It is true that the consumption of imported meat makes such renunciation [of meat-eating] dispensable; however, due to the fact that in this case, personal contact with the butcher and the confidence that goes with such contact do not exist, the consumption of imported meat is fraught with the insecurity whether the meat really complies with the commandments of Islam....Under these circumstances, an exemption from the mandatory stunning of warm-blooded animals before their blood is drained cannot be precluded if the intention connected with this exemption is to facilitate, on the one hand, the practice of a profession with a religious character, which is protected by fundamental rights, and, on the other hand, the observation of religious dietary laws by the customers of the person practicing the occupation in question. Without such exemptions, the fundamental rights of those who want to perform slaughter without stunning as their occupation would be unreasonably restricted, and the interests of the protection of animals would, without a sufficient constitutional justification, be given priority in a one-sided manner.[58]

Latvia

Latvia legalised ritual slaughter in 2009.[60] Halal meat products are exported to Sweden and animals are slaughtered using post-cut stunning.[40]

Luxembourg

Luxembourg has required since at least 1995 that animals be stunned prior to being slaughtered, and previously did not provide any exception for religious slaughter. The 1995 regulation has since been repealed and replaced by one that transposes European Union Regulation (EC) No. 1099/2009 of 24 September 2009 on the protection of animals at the time of killing into Luxembourger law. Under this new regulation, there now is an exception for religious slaughter, subject to authorization by the government upon written request on the part of the religious authority.[43]

Netherlands

Ritual slaughter is permitted, and regulated by a special convention concerning ritual slaughter.[101]

The Party for the Animals (Dutch: Partij voor de Dieren; PvdD) was voted into the Dutch Parliament's Lower House with two MPs in 2006, increased to 6 MPs in 2017. Their election program had been to introduce an effective ban on ritual slaughter: Jewish shechita and Muslim dhabiha. The bill was passed in the Lower House of the Dutch Parliament with 116 votes to 30. Debate over the matter swiftly became a focus of animosity towards the Netherlands' 1.2 million-strong Muslim community.{{verification needed|date=March 2014}} The country's Jewish population is comparatively small at 50,000.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

Following months of debate a last-minute concession was offered—the Muslim and Jewish communities would have a year to provide evidence that animals slaughtered by traditional methods do not experience greater pain than those that are stunned before they are killed.[61]

Chief Rabbi Lord Sacks visited the Netherlands in May 2011 to lobby against the ban, arguing that pre-stunning failed in up to 10 percent of cases and that caused more pain than the swift cutting of the throat by a razor-sharp knife. He blamed the vote on "a mischievous campaign by the animal rights lobby, based on emotive images and questionable science."{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

Dr. Joe Regenstein of Cornell University prepared a Preliminary Report for the Dutch government in May 2011.[62] The Dutch Senate (Upper House) held a long debate, and voted down the bill. Ritual slaughter is to proceed as before, with a provision for post-cut stunning should the animal survive for more than 40 seconds. According to various individuals and groups, the stunned animal will be neither halal or kosher.[63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72]

Only the Freedom Party of Geert Wilders, the Socialist Party, and the Animal Party wanted to forbid ritual slaughter in The Netherlands.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

Since 1 January 2018, a new regulation has been implemented that animals must lose consciousness within 40 seconds, otherwise stunning is required. Rumours spread that some Islamic abattoirs had started to stun animals before the cut, prompting conservative Muslims in July to raise concerns whether the meat would still be halal. The Utrecht Mosques Partnership called for a boycott of all Dutch meat during Eid al-Adha in August, forsaking the traditional sacrifice. They recommended having an animal sacrificed abroad and the meat imported until the availability of what they consider 'halal' meat within the Netherlands can be guaranteed. However, the Associations of Imams in the Netherlands (VIN) criticised the move, stressing the importance of ritual sacrifice in Islam, and saying the boycott 'violated divine law'.[45]

Poland

Poland banned slaughter of non-stunned animals in January, 2013, thus losing to neighbouring countries, such as Lithuania, an annual half-a-billion euro export trade to Israel, Turkey, Egypt, Iran and other Muslim-majority nations.[73] The claim was made by animal rights activists that kosher slaughter represented cruelty to animals.[74] The legal developments were complex, involving a government amendment to a law requiring all animals to be stunned prior to slaughter. The amendment allowed an exception to protect the religious freedoms of Poland's tiny Jewish and Muslim communities.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

After pressure from animal rights groups, the Constitutional Court quashed the amendment on the grounds that it is not permissible to amend a law so that the original intention of the law is contradicted. In December 2014, the Polish Constitutional Court overturned the ban on kosher and halal slaughter since the protection of animals "does not take priority over constitutional guarantees of religious freedom," with Judge Maria Gintowt-Jankowicz stating in her final verdict that "the constitution guarantees the freedom of religion which includes the carrying out of all activities, practices, rites and rituals which have a religious character."[75][76]

Slovenia

In 2012, Slovenia amended its Animal Welfare Act to ban all forms of ritual slaughter.[43] A group of Muslims requested the Constitutional Court to review the law, arguing unstunned ritual slaughter was a key part of the Islamic religion and therefore protected by the freedom of religion. However, the Court unanimously upheld the Act in 2018, stating that 'the Constitution did not allow easily preventable suffering to be inflicted on animals without a justified cause', and that this provision did 'not disproportionally interfere' with religious freedom.[77]

Spain

Animal welfare is controlled under the provisions of the Animal Welfare Act 32/2007, of November 7th. Article 6 of the act concerns slaughter of animals, including ritual slaughter:

When the slaughter of animals is carried out according to the rites of Churches, religious denominations or communities registered in the Register of Religious Entities,[78] and the stunning requirements are inconsistent with the rules of the respective religious rite, the competent authorities will not demand the compliance with such requirements provided that the procedure is carried out within the limits referred to in Article 3 of the Organic Law no. 7 of 5 July 1980 on Religious Freedom. In any case, the slaughter according to whatever religious rite shall be carried out under the supervision and according to the instructions of the official veterinarian. The slaughterhouse shall notify the competent authority that it will carry out this kind of slaughter in order to have it registered for this purpose, without prejudice to the authorisation provided for in the European Community legislation.[79]

Sweden

All domestic animals must be stunned before slaughter.[80] Ritual slaughter of cattle without stunning has been prohibited since 1937, and of poultry since 1989.[101] Halal slaughter of stunned animals takes place in Sweden.[81][82]

United Kingdom

Unstunned religious slaughter is legal in the UK. However, its legality is hotly debated by various religious and political groups and individuals. Both Muslims and non-Muslims, Jews and non-Jews are divided over the question whether meat from stunned animals is to be considered halal or kosher, and thus whether a ban on unstunned slaughter would or would not constitute a violation of the religious freedom of those Jews and Muslims who claim to have a right to consume meat from unstunned animals. Meanwhile, some animal welfare activists and groups argue that slaughter should be banned entirely, regardless of alleged justification.[83]

In 2003, the Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC), which advises the British government on how to avoid cruelty to livestock, stated the way Jewish Kosher and Muslim Halal meat is produced causes severe suffering to animals, and recommend the British government to ban Jewish and Muslim ritual slaughter (shechita and dhabihah).[84] The British government rejected FAWC's advice.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}} This elicited responses from shechita uk, and from Dr S. D. Rosen[85] This is a continuation of a public debate that dates back to the founding or the Animal Protection Societies in the 1890s.[86][87]

S. D. Rosen's conclusion in a scientific paper is that "Shechita (kosher slaughter) is a painless and humane method of animal slaughter".[88]

Food Standards Agency figures from 2012 showed that more than 80% of animals are stunned before slaughter for halal meat in the UK.[146]

The debate in the UK resurfaced in spring 2014 after Denmark prohibited unstunned slaughter in February that year.[89] It began with a 6 March 2014 article of three page long in The Times by the British Veterinary Association's president John Blackwell, who claimed that in ritual slaughter the animal must be alive when its throat is cut and die from loss of blood, annually causing more than 600,000 animals in Britain unnecessary suffering.[90][91] Vice-president Jonathan Arkush of the Board of Deputies of British Jews confronted Blackwell the same day on The Today Programme[89][92][93] by saying that "animals that are killed for the Jewish and Muslim markets do not bleed to death." He claimed that cutting an animal's throat "instantly" renders an animal "insensible to pain and unconscious", while on the other hand "pre-stunning fails to stun in between 9 and 31% of cases, depending on which animal welfare charity you go to", attributing the 9% figure to the RSPCA.[18]{{rp|at=4:13}} Blackwell retorted that there is strong scientific evidence that, depending on the species, the animal remains conscious after the throat cut for an average of 7 seconds in sheep to up to 2 minutes in cattle, which is "unacceptable from a welfare point of view".[18]{{rp|at=5:02}} Some Muslim and Jewish commentators accused Blackwell and his supporters of anti-Muslim or anti-Semitic prejudice, but Blackwell insisted that he respected religious beliefs and that "the Danish unilateral banning [was done] purely for animal welfare reasons, which is right". Numerous animal welfare societies backed Blackwell's position. National Secular Society campaigner Stephen Evans argued that the scientific consensus was clear that stunning was better for animal welfare, and that it was "therefore both reasonable and appropriate to suggest that, unless religious communities can agree on more humane slaughter methods, their right to religious freedom should, in this instance, be limited in the interests of animal welfare."[94]

On the day the controversy began on 6 April 2014, it was reported that about 80 to 85% of halal meat produced by the Muslim community in the United Kingdom was pre-stunned.[94][18]{{rp|at=3:38}} However, the percentage of unstunned slaughtered animals within the British halal meat industry grew by around 60% in the ten months after this controversy began, following a Muslim campaign to change the practice.[95]

Other countries

In the rest of Europe the legal situation of ritual slaughter differs from country to country. While some countries have introduced bans, other countries—the US, the United Kingdom, Ireland, the Netherlands—introduced legislation protecting shehitah.[96]

Legal requirements for ritual slaughter by country
Country Requirement SinceNotes
AustraliaPre-cut stunning required}} Except for 4 slaughterhouses which may slaughter sheep unstunned and cattle post-cut, all animals in Australia must be stunned.[44]
Bosnia and HerzegovinaNo stunning required}} Requirements that animals be stunned before slaughter do not apply to religious groups.[97]
MacedoniaNo stunning required}} [44]
IcelandPre-cut stunning required}}[98] 2013 All halal meat produced in Iceland is stunned and certified by the Muslim Association of Iceland. Unstunned ritually slaughtered meat may be imported to Iceland, stunned halal meat may be exported.[43]
LiechtensteinPre-cut stunning required}}[99] 2010 All animals except ritually slaughtered poultry must be stunned before slaughter.[43]
New ZealandSome ritual slaughter banned}} 2010 Kosher beef is banned in New Zealand, but may be imported from Australia.[167]
NorwayPre-cut stunning required}}[1][43] 1929
SwitzerlandPre-cut stunning required}}[1][98][100] 1893 All animals except ritually slaughtered poultry must be stunned before slaughter.[43] A 1978 law allows for the import of meat from unstunned slaughtered animals from other countries.
TurkeyNo stunning required}} [44]
United StatesNo stunning required}} 1958
UruguayNo stunning required}} [44]

Norway

{{Over-quotation|section|date=June 2018}}

"The debate on Jewish religious slaughter in Norway first evolved in the animal protection movement in the late 1890s, but did not become a public matter until the Jews of Norway's capital Kristiania (now Oslo) were forced by the city authorities to abandon the practice of kosher slaughter (shehitah) within the city borders in 1913. From that moment and until the law prohibiting the practice on a national level was adopted by the Norwegian parliament on 12 June 1929, the debate made the headlines on several occasions in Norwegian newspapers in the interwar years. Hundreds of articles, letters and editorials discussed the case which was known as the «Schächtning-affair».1 The issue received especially much attention from the nationalist right-wing of the Agrarian movement, and the Jewish slaughter practice became subject to a massive campaign from the Agrarian press and from Agrarian party members of parliament. In its final phase during the 1920s, many of the critics were also heavily influenced by the modern anti-Semitic ideology that had evolved in Germany since the late 1870s. One of the most quoted statements from the debate was made by the Agrarian MP, and later prime minister Jens Hunseid (1883–1965) during the conclusive parliamentary session on June 12, 1929: «We have no obligation to deliver our domestic animals to the cruelties of the Jews, we have not invited the Jews to this country, and we have no obligation to provide the Jews animals to their religious orgies»."[101]

Norway copied the Swiss campaign to ban ritual slaughter. The same arguments were presented as in the Swiss campaign and an appeal was made by the Jewish community to the Norwegian parliament not to introduce the legislation. After the ban was introduced, Norwegian Jews imported kosher meat from Sweden until it was banned there too.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

In the 1890s, protests were raised in the Norwegian press against the practice of shechita. The Jewish community responded to these objections by assuring the public that the method was in fact humane. Efforts to ban shechita put sincere humane society activists in league with antisemitic individuals. Those opposing the ban included Fridtjof Nansen, but the division on the issue crossed party lines in all mainstream parties, except the Farmer's Party, which was principled in its opposition to schechita.[102]

The Food Health regulations were controversial, especially the stunning requirement, as they would lead to a fundamental change in the meat producing market. A committee was commissioned on February 11, 1927 that consulted numerous experts and visited a slaughterhouse in Copenhagen. Its majority favored the changes and found support in the Department of Agriculture and the parliamentary agriculture committee. Those who opposed a ban spoke of religious tolerance, and also claimed that schechita was no more inhumane than other slaughter methods. C J Hambro was one of those most appalled by the discussion, claiming that "where animal rights are protected to an exaggerated extent, it usually is done with the help of human sacrifice"[103]{{verify source|date=September 2012|didn't he say: let's not make the statement true that...}}

New Zealand

In May 2010, Minister of Agriculture David Carter issued a ban on kosher slaughter, rejecting the recommendations of his advisors.[104] Carter held shares in a firm which exports meat and prior to instituting the ban he met senior managers of the firm who wanted a ban on kosher slaughter to reduce their competition.[167] In November 2010, the ban on kosher slaughter of chickens was overturned, but the ban on kosher slaughter of beef was still in effect and kosher beef had to be imported from Australia.[105] In June 2011 the World Jewish Congress adopted a resolution calling on the New Zealand Government to abrogate its ban on kosher slaughter.[106]

Switzerland

{{Further|Animal welfare and rights in Switzerland}}

The Swiss banned unstunned slaughter in 1893 after a plebiscite so that a law requiring stunning prior to blood letting (exsanguination) was included in the Swiss Constitution. This required every abbatoir to stun animals before slaughter, including Jewish and Islamic ones. The plebiscite had been preceded by a long anti-Semitic campaign, in which Jews were supported by Catholics, who had suffered under Otto von Bismarck in his anti-Catholic Kulturkampf.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}} Catholic priests gave sermons encouraging their parishioners to vote against the effective ban, and the results of the referendum showed that French-speaking Cantons had voted against the ban, but German-speaking Protestant cantons that had voted for the ban.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

In Switzerland, a ban on kosher slaughter has been enforced since 1897, when the people supported this measure through a referendum with clear anti-Semitic undertones. At the time, Jews had recently been granted full civil rights and some Swiss citizens feared an invasion of Jewish migrants from Eastern Europe, who they considered to be unassimilable, foreign, and unreliable. By banning the performance of a core Jewish ritual, the Swiss people found a disguised way to limit the immigration of Jews into Switzerland.[107]

According to the US Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour "Ritual slaughter (the bleeding to death of animals that have not first been stunned) was made illegal in the country in 1893; however, a 1978 Law on the Protection of Animals explicitly allows for the importation of kosher and halal meat. Imported from France and Germany, this meat is available in the country at comparable prices. In 2003, a popular initiative to protect animal rights and prohibit the import of meat from animals bled without stunning was filed; in December 2005, however, the sponsors withdrew their initiative before it had been submitted to a national vote after Parliament adopted a revision of the Law on the Protection of Animals."[108]

The Swiss Federation of Jewish Communities (SIG), founded in 1904, regards the 1893 ban on unstunned slaughter as antisemitic.[109]

There was a backlash against a proposal to lift the ban in 2002. "In 2002, when the Swiss government attempted to lift the century-old ban, animal rights activists, political groups (on the left and the right), and unaffiliated citizens expressed strong opposition. They called shechita practice a "barbaric" and "sanguinary", an "archaic tradition from the time of the ghettos", and asked Jews to either become vegetarian or leave the country."[107]

Proposals to extend ban to imports

Switzerland has considered extending the ban in order to prohibit importing kosher products. The Swiss Animal Association{{Citation needed|date=June 2018|reason=Group appears not to exist. Is it the Schweizer Tierschutz perhaps?}} called for a referendum on banning kosher imports.[110]{{better source|date=June 2018}} Christopher Blocher, a cabinet minister for the Swiss People's Party, has supported calls to ban the import of kosher and halal meat.[111] "A recent survey showed more than three-quarters of the population said they would like to see their government ban even the import of kosher meat. Erwin Kessler, president of Verein gegen Tierfabrik (Association against animal factories)[112] who has several convictions for racial offenses, including the comparison of Jewish ritual slaughter of animals with the Nazi treatment of Jews

,[113] has been campaigning vigorously for this. He's 40,000 short of the 100,000 signatures needed to trigger a referendum to completely ban kosher and halal meat entering Switzerland. Kessler has inflamed the controversy by publicly quoting vegetarian and literature Nobel Laureate Isaac Bashevis Singer[114] comparing kosher slaughter to the methods used by Nazis in concentration camps, but denies that his motives are anti-semitic."[115]

In June 2017, MP Matthias Aebischer (Social Democratic Party) proposed a bill to ban the import of meat from animals that have undergone ritual slaughter. The bill also included a ban on foie gras, which is controversial because it is produced by forcefeeding geese which is widely considered cruel, despite being popular amongst especially French-speaking Swiss.[109]

United States

{{Over-quotation|section|date=June 2018}}{{Refimprove section|date=June 2018}}

The United States is one of the countries that has legislation for protection of shechita (Jewish) and dhabihah (Muslim) ritual slaughter.

The Humane Slaughter Act defines ritual slaughter as one of two humane methods of slaughter.[116]

Since 1958 the United States has prohibited the shackling and hoisting of cattle without stunning them first.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

In Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah 508 U.S. 520 (1993), the United States Supreme Court struck down a ban imposed by the City of Hialeah, Florida, on Santería religious animal sacrifices practiced by the Church as contravening the religious freedoms guaranteed by the Free Exercise Clause of the Constitution of the United States. While the City of Hialeah claimed that its ban on ritual slaughter "not for the primary purpose of food consumption" was motivated by concerns for animal welfare and public health, the Supreme Court held that ample evidence showed that it was in fact motivated by animosity to the Santería religion and a desire to suppress it:{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

That the ordinances were enacted "'because of,' not merely 'in spite of'", their suppression of Santería religious practice is revealed by the events preceding enactment of the ordinances. The minutes and taped excerpts of the June 9 session, both of which are in the record, evidence significant hostility exhibited by residents, members of the city council, and other city officials toward the Santería religion and its practice of animal sacrifice. The public crowd that attended the June 9 meetings interrupted statements by council members critical of Santería with cheers and the brief comments of Pichardo with taunts. When Councilman Martinez, a supporter of the ordinances, stated that in pre-revolution Cuba "people were put in jail for practicing this religion", the audience applauded. Other statements by members of the city council were in a similar vein. For example, Councilman Martinez, after noting his belief that Santería was outlawed in Cuba, questioned, "if we could not practice this [religion] in our homeland [Cuba], why bring it to this country?" Councilman Cardoso said that Santería devotees at the Church "are in violation of everything this country stands for." Various Hialeah city officials made comparable comments. The chaplain of the Hialeah Police Department told the city council that Santería was a sin, "foolishness", "an abomination to the Lord", and the worship of "demons." He advised the city council that "We need to be helping people and sharing with them the truth that is found in Jesus Christ." He concluded: "I would exhort you . . . not to permit this Church to exist." The city attorney commented that Resolution 87-66 indicated that "This community will not tolerate religious practices which are abhorrent to its citizens...." Similar comments were made by the deputy city attorney. This history discloses the object of the ordinances to target animal sacrifice by Santería worshippers because of its religious motivation.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

In sum, the neutrality inquiry leads to one conclusion: The ordinances had as their object the suppression of religion. The pattern we have recited discloses animosity to Santería adherents and their religious practices; the ordinances by their own terms target this religious exercise; the texts of the ordinances were gerrymandered with care to proscribe religious killings of animals but to exclude almost all secular killings; and the ordinances suppress much more religious conduct than is necessary in order to achieve the legitimate ends asserted in their defense. These ordinances are not neutral, and the court below committed clear error in failing to reach this conclusion{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

The Court also found that the city's proffered reasons for its ban simply did not explain or justify it.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

Respondent claims that [the ordinances] advance two interests: protecting the public health and preventing cruelty to animals. The ordinances are underinclusive for those ends. They fail to prohibit non religious conduct that endangers these interests in a similar or greater degree than Santería sacrifice does. The underinclusion is substantial, not inconsequential. Despite the city's proffered interest in preventing cruelty to animals, the ordinances are drafted with care to forbid few killings but those occasioned by religious sacrifice. Many types of animal deaths or kills for nonreligious reasons are either not prohibited or approved by express provision.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

Temple Grandin, who is both an animal welfare activist and the leading American designer of commercial slaughterhouses, has outlined techniques for humane ritual slaughter.[117][118] She considers shackling and hoisting of animals for slaughter to be inhumane, and has developed alternative approaches usable in production plants. Grandin has coordinated this with the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative movement in the United States, and in 2000 the Committee voted to accept her approach, ruling that "Now that kosher, humane slaughter using upright pens is both possible and widespread, we find shackling and hoisting to be a violation of Jewish laws forbidding cruelty to animals and requiring that we avoid unnecessary dangers to human life. As the CJLS, then, we rule that shackling and hoisting should be stopped."[119]

In an investigation by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, undercover video was obtained of kosher slaughtering practices at a major kosher slaughterhouse run by Agriprocessors in Postville, Iowa.[120] The methods used there involved clamping the animals into a box which is then inverted for slaughter, followed by partial dismemberment of the animal before it was dead. Those methods have been condemned as unnecessarily cruel by PETA and others, including Grandin and the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, but are endorsed by the Orthodox Union,[121] which supervises the slaughterhouse. An investigation by the USDA resulted in some minor operational changes. A lawsuit under Iowa law is pending. Grandin's comment was "I thought it was the most disgusting thing I'd ever seen. I couldn't believe it. I've been in at least 30 other kosher slaughter plants, and I had never ever seen that kind of procedure done before. ...

I've seen kosher slaughter really done right, so the problem here is not kosher slaughter. The problem here is a plant that is doing everything wrong they can do wrong".[122] In 2006 the Orthodox Union, Temple Grandin and Agriprocessors had reportedly resolved their problems.[123] In 2008, though, Grandin reported that Agriprocessors had again become "sloppy" in their slaughter operation and was "in the bottom 10%" of slaughterhouses.[124]

Agriprocessors faced accusations of mistreatment of cattle, pollution, and a series of alleged violations of labor law. In May 2008, the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) staged a raid of the plant, and arrested nearly 400 illegal immigrant workers. Agriprocessors plants stopped operating in October 2008, and the firm filed for bankruptcy on November 5 of the same year. Sholom Rubashkin as the highest ranking day-to-day corporate officer was charged with federal financial fraud and sentenced to 27 years in prison in June 2010.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

The Agriprocessors plant was bought at auction in July 2009 by SHF Industries and has resumed production under the new name Agri Star.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

See also

  • Shechita, Jewish method of ritual slaughter
  • Dhabihah, Islamic method of ritual slaughter
  • Jhatka, Hindu & Sikh method of animal slaughter
  • Animal sacrifice
  • Animal welfare
  • DIALREL, Dialogue on Religious Slaughter: an EU project

References

1. ^1 2 3 {{Cite book |last1=Rawlinson |first1=Mary |last2=Ward |first2=Caleb |date=2016 |title=The Routledge Handbook of Food Ethics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UUyTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA306 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |pages=305–306 |isbn=9781317595502 |accessdate=20 June 2018}}
2. ^[https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2017/05/kill-and-let-kill The Economist: The debate surrounding religious rules for slaughtering animals]
3. ^Aurora Packing Co. v. National Labor Relations Board, 904 F. 2d 73 (D.C. Cir. 1990) as cited by Jlaw.com
4. ^S.S. & B. Live Poultry Corp. v. Kashrut Ass'n of Greater NY, 158 Misc. 358, 285 N.Y.S. 879 (Sup. Ct. N.Y. City, 1936) as cited by Jlaw.com
5. ^Cohen v. Silver, 277 Mass 230, 178 NE 508 (Supreme Judicial Court, 1931) as cited by Jlaw.com
6. ^People v. Gordon, 14 NYS2d 333, 172 Misc 543 (Sp. Sess. 1939) as cited by Jlaw.com
7. ^Levy v. Kosher Overseers Association of America, Inc., 104 F. 3d 38 (2d Cir. 1997) as cited by Jlaw.com
8. ^[https://www.animallaw.info/case/jones-v-butz Michigan State University College of Law Animal Legal and Historical Center]
9. ^Nathan Lewin Dr. Isaac Lewin And The Fight For Kosher Slaughter
10. ^"Kosher Food Regulation and the Religion Clauses of the First Amendment" by Gerald F. Masoudi, The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 60, No. 2. (Spring, 1993), pp. 667–696 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1600082 JSTOR link]
11. ^[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/06/halal-shechita-politics-animal-slaughter Sam Jones Halal, Shechita and the politics of animal slaughter The Guardian]
12. ^[https://www.animallaw.info/article/free-exercise-does-not-protect-animal-sacrifice-misconception-church-lukumi-babalu-aye-v Free Exercise Does Not Protect Animal Sacrifice: The Misconception of Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah and Constitutional Solutions for Stopping Animal Sacrifice Shannon L. Doheny]
13. ^[https://newhumanist.org.uk/articles/4599/like-it-or-not-the-ritual-slaughter-debate-is-about-much-more-than-animal-rights Paul Sims Like it or not, the ritual slaughter debate is about much more than animal rights]
14. ^ScienceNordic Butchery law with anti-Semitic roots
15. ^Regulating slaughter: Animal Protection and Antisemitism in Scandinavia, 1880–1941 Michael Metcalf. Patterns of Prejudice, vol 23 no.3, 1989
16. ^Quoted on this site in French: “En pensée, Herman fit l'oraison funèbre de la souris qui avait partagé une partie de sa vie et qui, à cause de lui, avait quitté cette terre. "Tous ces érudits, tous ces philosophes, les dirigeants de la planète, que savent-ils de quelqu'un comme toi? Ils se sont persuadé que l'homme, espèce pécheresse entre toutes, domine la création. Toutes les autres créatures n'auraient été créées que pour lui procurer de la nourritures, des fourrures, pour être martyrisées, exterminées. Pour ces créatures, tous les humains sont nazis; pour les animaux, c'est un éternel Treblinka.”
17. ^1 2 3 {{Cite book |last=Menuge |first=Angus J.L. |date=2016 |title=Legitimizing Human Rights: Secular and Religious Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=318GDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |pages=39–49 |isbn=9781317105763 |accessdate=20 June 2018}}
18. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TsNXRk1NjYI |title=John Blackwell (BVA Head) - End Religious Slaughter Without Pre-Stunning (2014) |author=Mishal Husain |work=The Today Programme |publisher=BBC Radio 4 |date=6 March 2014 |accessdate=22 June 2018}} The British Veterinary Association's head John Blackwell and vice-president Jonathan Arkush of the Board of Deputies of British Jews outline two sides of the public debate on the ritual slaughter of animals.
19. ^{{cite web |url=http://halalcertification.ie/islamic-method-of-slaughtering/ |title=Islamic Method Of Slaughtering |work=Department of Halal Certification Europe (DHCE) |publisher=Al-Mustafa Islamic Centre Ireland |accessdate=22 June 2018}}
20. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.humanesociety.org/assets/pdfs/faith/conservative_judaism_pdf.pdf |title=Conservative Judaism |publisher=Humane Society of the United States |accessdate=22 June 2018}}
21. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=QH3BHQulNpsC&pg=PA225&lpg=PA225&dq=requirement+for+shohet+religiosity&source=bl&ots=T0rKyskFfR&sig=2ZlLDp5rw4fbn8S5p1DQ_7dCuSU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjehvDkuu_VAhWidpoKHYspB-cQ6AEIPzAE#v=onepage&q=requirement%20for%20shohet%20religiosity&f=false A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza S. D. Goitein]
22. ^1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific: Guidelines for Humane Handling, Transport and Slaughter of Livestock, chapter 7
23. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=DB0GsYw6dhAC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=conservative+jews+accept+stunning&source=bl&ots=pniGcpqMt4&sig=2kVzbRffutLSAr4w241fkiFoCWk&hl=sv&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi_-Yaexu_VAhUhEJoKHbJaAQQQ6AEIUjAF#v=onepage&q=conservative%20jews%20accept%20stunning&f=false Contested Rituals: Circumcision, Kosher Butchering, and Jewish Political ... Robin Judd]
24. ^百濟第二十九主法王諱宣。或云孝順。開皇十年己未即位。是年冬。下詔禁殺生。放民家所養鷹鸇之類。焚漁獵之具。一切禁止。三國遺事 卷3
25. ^2010 社會學研究生論文發表會2010 年3 月19 日
26. ^[鳥銃濫発禁止令」「犬猫を繋ぐことの禁止令」「鳥魚貝等の憐れみ令」「犬猫憐れみ令」「馬匹憐れみ令」「猪鹿狼憐れみ令]
27. ^生類憐みの令の真実
28. ^Metcalf, "Regulating Slaughter: Animal Protection and Antisemitism in Scandinavia, 1880–1941", Patterns of Prejudice 23 (1989): pp. 32–48.
29. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1201&letter=S |title=Switzerland |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com |date= |accessdate=2013-04-22}}
30. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/swiss.html |title=Switzerland: Virtual Jewish History Tour |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |date= |accessdate=2013-04-22}}
31. ^Dr. Simon Erlanger Muslims and Jews in Switzerland note 37
32. ^Maduro, G.A., 2015. Ritual Slaughter and (in) equality. p.47
33. ^{{Cite book |title=My Brother's Keeper {{ndash}} A History of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 1929–1939 |publisher=The Jewish Publication Society of America |location=Philadelphia |year=1974 |first=Yehuda |last=Bauer |chapter=Prelude of the Holocaust |quote=[...] Polish laws against ritual slaughter (shehita) enacted in April 1936 and, in a final and drastic form, in March 1939.}}
34. ^Ron Journard Jerusalem Post Feb 10, 1989
35. ^The Right to Practise Shehitah Berman et al
36. ^Svanberg, Ingvar Religös slakt in Religionsfrihet i Sverige: rätten att leva som troende Religious slaughter in Freedom of Religion in Sweden: the Right to Follow One's Conscience as a believer
37. ^New challenges for Islamic ritual slaughtering: a European perspective, F. Bergeaud-Blackler
pages 9–10 "Sweden, Norway, Iceland and Switzerland as well as six Austrian provinces allow no exemption to pre-mortem stunning of the animal. Conversely, this exemption is granted in France, UK, Belgium, Denmark, Italy, Ireland, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain. Conditions for exemption are not always the same in all countries. For instance, in Spain exemptions only apply to sheep and goats but not to cattle."
page 14 "Eventually, in 2002, the German constitutional court granted to a Muslim butcher the right to slaughter without stunning similarly to Jewish butchers"{{dead link|date=June 2018}}
38. ^Renucci, Jean-François. "Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights." Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion. Council of Europe (2005). p. 5
39. ^Official Journal of the European Union L 137, 02/06/1988 p. 0027 – 0038 "European Convention for the Protection of Animals for Slaughter"
40. ^1 2 3 {{cite web |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/bibliotheque/briefing/2012/120375/LDM_BRI(2012)120375_REV2_EN.pdf |title=Religious slaughter of animals in the EU |author=Christopher Needham |work=Library Briefing |publisher=European Parliament |date=15 November 2012 |accessdate=20 June 2018}}
41. ^{{Cite journal |last=Blokhuis |display-authors=etal |date=15 June 2004 |title=Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare on a request from the Commission related to welfare aspects of the main systems of stunning and killing the main commercial species of animals |url=https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2004.45 |journal=The EFSA Journal |publisher=European Food Safety Authority |volume=45 |issue= |page=2 |accessdate=23 June 2018}}
42. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.ciwf.org.uk/news/2009/07/new-hit-and-miss-eu-slaughter-regulation |title=New hit-and-miss EU Slaughter Regulation |publisher=Compassion in World Farming |date=2 July 2009 |accessdate=22 June 2018}}
43. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 {{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/law/help/religious-slaughter/europe.php |title=Legal Restrictions on Religious Slaughter in Europe |work= |publisher=Library of Congress |date=14 May 2018 |accessdate=20 June 2018}}
44. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 {{cite web |url=http://www.dialrel.eu/images/factsheet-legislation.pdf |title=Legislation on religious slaughter |author=Silvio Ferrari, Rossella Bottoni |work=Factsheet |publisher=DIALREL |date= |accessdate=21 June 2018}}
45. ^1 {{Cite news |url=https://www.ad.nl/binnenland/deel-nederlandse-moslims-wil-offerfeest-boycotten~ab42e859/ |title=Deel Nederlandse moslims wil offerfeest boycotten |author=Abdel Ilah Rubio |work=Algemeen Dagblad |date=13 July 2018 |accessdate=14 July 2018}}
46. ^EU Commission report on Animal Health in Austria, p. 16.
47. ^1 {{Cite news |url=http://deredactie.be/cm/vrtnieuws/politiek/1.2981474 |title=Wallonië verbiedt het onverdoofd slachten van dieren |author=Jos De Greef |work=DeRedactie.be |date=17 May 2017 |accessdate=18 March 2018 |language=nl}}
48. ^1 {{Cite news |url=http://deredactie.be/cm/vrtnieuws/binnenland/1.3011916# |title=Vlaams Parlement keurt verbod op onverdoofd slachten goed |author=Jan Gerits |work=DeRedactie.be |date=28 June 2017 |accessdate=18 March 2018 |language=nl}}
49. ^1 {{Cite news |url=http://www.knack.be/nieuws/belgie/brussels-gewest-krijgt-verbod-op-thuisslachten/article-normal-941433.html |title=Brussels Gewest krijgt verbod op thuisslachten |work=Knack |date=19 December 2017 |accessdate=20 June 2018 |language=nl}}
50. ^1 {{cite web |url=https://www.foedevarestyrelsen.dk/english/Animal/AnimalWelfare/Slaughter_of_animals/Pages/default.aspx |title=Welfare at slaughter |date=February 19, 2014 |publisher=Danish Veterinary and Food Administration|accessdate=February 22, 2014}}
51. ^Nelson, Sarah C. (18 February 2014) & Kosher Slaughter Banned In Denmark As Minister Insists 'Animal Rights Come Before Religion' The Huffungton Post, Retrieved 19 February 2014
52. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/news/14440/danish_government_bans_kosher_slaughter |title=Danish government bans kosher slaughter |date=February 13, 2014 |publisher=World Jewish Congress |accessdate=February 19, 2014}}
53. ^Berman Shehitah 1941.
54. ^1 No 163. Statute for the Protection of Domestic Animals, Par. 4, "Suomen Asetuskokoelma," 1934
55. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.axt.org.uk/antisem/archive/archive1/finland/index.htm |title=Antisemitism and Xenophobia Today |access-date=3 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027082047/http://www.axt.org.uk/antisem/archive/archive1/finland/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2012 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}
56. ^1 Jewish Liturgical Association Cha'are Shalom Ve Tsedek v. France, European Court of Human Rights, No. 27417/95, 27 June 2000
57. ^BBC News Tuesday, 15 January, 2002 German court ends Muslim slaughter ban
58. ^1 1 BvR 1783/99 of 01/15/2002 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612114942/https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/en/decisions/rs20020115_1bvr178399en.html |date=12 June 2007 }}, German Federal Constitutional Court
59. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,3474409,00.html |title=Halal, Kosher Slaughter Unacceptable, say German Vets | Germany | DW.DE | 10.07.2008 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=10 July 2008 |accessdate=20 June 2018}}
60. ^Al Halal.eu
61. ^[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-13947163 BBC News]
62. ^[https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/28/us-dutch-religion-slaughter-idUSTRE75R4E420110628 Reuters Ivana Secularac Dutch Vote to Ban Religious Slaughter]
63. ^Jewish Chronicle June 11 2011 The first cut: Kosher killing ban shocks Jews
64. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-13947163|title=Dutch MPs effectively ban ritual slaughter of animals|date=28 June 2011|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=28 June 2011}}
65. ^[https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/28/us-dutch-religion-slaughter-idUSTRE75R4E420110628 14 December 2011 Reuters: Dutch vote to ban religious slaughter of animals. By Ivana Sekularac. Amsterdam Tue Jun 28, 2011]
66. ^Jewish Chronicle, Comment. 30 June 2011. The Dutch Ban Smacks of Racism
67. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nos.nl/artikel/322079-verbod-rituele-slacht-van-de-baan.html|title=Verbod rituele slacht van de baan|date=14 December 2011|work=nos.nl|accessdate=14 December 2011|language=nl}}
68. ^Dutch Ban on Ritual Slaughter in Doubt as Senate Considers Jewish, Muslim Objections Wednesday December 14th, 2011
69. ^12 June 2012 Ritual salaughter ban rejected again in Dutch Senate. Radio Netherlands
70. ^  19 June 2012 Dutch senate scraps ban on kosher slaughter JTA (Jewish Telegraphic Agency)
71. ^Ha'aretz: Netherlands Rejects Bill Banning Kosher Slaughter. Jewish Groups Claim Victory.
72. ^A new covenant aims to allow Jews and Muslims to continue to perform ritual slaughter of animals while answering the broadly supported call to prevent animal suffering. Radio Netherlands International 30 January 2012
73. ^Ritual Slaughter Continues in Krakow Despite Ban Krakow Post, August 16, 2013
74. ^{{cite web|title = Kosher Slaughter Ban Kills $1.3B Poland Industry - Breaking News|url = http://forward.com/news/breaking-news/181010/kosher-slaughter-ban-kills-13b-poland-industry/|website = The Forward|accessdate = 2015-10-29}}
75. ^Polish ban on kosher and halal slaughter overturned RT December 11, 2014
76. ^1 [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30412551 Polish ban on kosher slaughter of animals is overturned BBC]
77. ^{{Cite news |url=http://www.total-slovenia-news.com/news/1303-slovenia-s-constitutional-court-rules-ban-on-halal-slaughter-legal |title=Slovenia's Constitutional Court Rules Ban on Halal Slaughter Legal |work=Total Slovenia News |date=24 May 2018 |accessdate=27 June 2018}}
78. ^Organic Law 7/1980 of July 5, Liberty Religious, Art. 3.
79. ^1 2 {{es icon}} {{cite web |url=http://www.animallaw.info/nonus/statutes/stesawl2007.htm |title=Ley 32/2007, de 7 de noviembre, para el cuidado de los animales, en su explotación, transporte, experimentación y sacrificio |publisher=Animal Legal & Historical Center |accessdate=22 June 2018 |language=es}}
80. ^1 "Swedish Animal Welfare Act, 1988" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728171604/http://www.government.se/sb/d/574/a/90310 |date=28 July 2014 }} "Domestic animals shall be stunned before being bled prior to slaughter. No other measures may be taken in connection with slaughter until the animal is dead."
81. ^1 Eurogroup for Animals (2009) Religious slaughter – state of play.
82. ^Sweden postpones move to ban the kosher slaughter of poultry
83. ^1 {{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-31411219 |title=Should religious slaughter be banned in the UK? |author=Caroline Wyatt |work=BBC News |date=16 February 2015 |accessdate=20 June 2018}}
84. ^1 {{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2977086.stm |title=Halal and Kosher slaughter 'must end' |work=BBC News |date=10 June 2003 |accessdate=22 June 2018}}
85. ^[https://www.shechitauk.org/shechita-conformity-confrontation/ Shechita Conformity & Confrontation]
86. ^Robin Judd The Politics of Beef: Animal Advocacy and the Kosher Butchering Debates in Germany Jewish Social Studies New Series, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Autumn, 2003), pp. 117–150
87. ^[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/central-european-history/article/stunning-bodies-animal-slaughter-judaism-and-the-meaning-of-humanity-in-imperial-germany/4EE66EA94C1C45EE1EDEA40D3F7CE55A Stunning Bodies: Animal Slaughter, Judaism, and the Meaning of Humanity in Imperial Germany Dorothee Brantz]
88. ^[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8483053_Physiological_insights_into_Shechita S. D. Rosen Physiological insights into Shechia]
89. ^1 {{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/06/halal-shechita-politics-animal-slaughter |title=Halal, shechita and the politics of animal slaughter |author=Sam Jones |work=The Guardian |date=6 March 2014 |accessdate=22 June 2018}}
90. ^{{Cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/stop-ritual-slaughter-of-animals-says-top-vet-fsjcv6p9hgt |title=Stop ritual slaughter of animals, says top vet |author=Dominic Kennedy |work=The Times |date=6 March 2014 |accessdate=22 June 2018}}
91. ^{{Cite book |last=Humphery |first=Angela |date=2014 |title=Memoirs of a Party Animal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHpdCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT11 |publisher=Lulu Press |page=11 |isbn=9781326119195 |accessdate=22 June 2018}}
92. ^{{Cite news |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/03/06/halal-kosher-ritual-slaughter_n_4909232.html |title=Reform Halal And Kosher? Britain's Top Vet, John Blackwell, Calls For End To Ritual Slaughter |work=The Huffington Post |date=6 March 2014 |accessdate=22 June 2018}}
93. ^{{Cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/britains-top-vet-sparks-controversy-with-call-for-ban-on-slashing-animals-throats-in-ritual-9173258.html |title=Britain's top vet sparks controversy with call for ban on slashing animals' throats in 'ritual' slaughters for halal and kosher meat products |author=Rob Williams |work=The Independent |date=6 March 2014 |accessdate=22 June 2018}}
94. ^1 2 {{cite web |url=https://www.secularism.org.uk/news/2014/03/leading-vet-calls-for-an-end-to-religious-slaughter |title=Leading vet calls for an end to religious slaughter |publisher=National Secular Society |date=6 March 2014 |accessdate=22 June 2018}}
95. ^{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/11378667/Sharp-rise-in-halal-abattoirs-slaughtering-animals-without-stunning-them-first.html |title=Sharp rise in halal abattoirs slaughtering animals without stunning them first |author=Bill Gardner |work=The Telegraph |date=29 January 2015 |accessdate=22 June 2018}}
96. ^1 2 3 4 Italian bioethic committee Report on Ritual slaughtering and animal suffering, Annex 3 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007172944/http://www.governo.it/bioetica/eng/Ritualslaughtering_AnimalSuffering.pdf |date=7 October 2007 }}
97. ^{{cite web |title=Rulebook on the protection of animals during slaughter or killing ("Official gazette of B&H", No 46/10) |url=http://sluzbenilist.ba/page/akt/N8mQFm2HRNQ=}}
98. ^1 European Convention for the Protection of Animals for Slaughter, Explanatory Report, article 17
99. ^Lerner, Pablo and Rabello, Alfredo Mordechai (2007) The Prohibition of Ritual Slaughtering... The Journal of Law and Religion, Volume XXII, 2006–2007, Number 1, Retrieved 20 February 2014
100. ^[https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71411.htm US Religious Freedom Report 2006 for Switzerland]
101. ^Andreas Snildal Anti-Semitism without Hatred? The Animal Protection Movement and the Semantics of Kosher Slaughter in Norway 1895–1913
102. ^{{cite book|last=Johansen|first=Per Ola|authorlink=|coauthors=|editor=|others=|title=Oss selv nærmest|year=1984|month=|url=http://www.jus.uio.no/ikrs/tjenester/kunnskap/kriminalpolitikk/aktuelt/Tema/jodeforfolgelse/ossselvnaermest_hele.pdf|accessdate=|edition=|series=|volume=|date=|publisher=Gyldendal Norsk Forlag|location=Oslo|language=Norwegian|isbn=8205150621|oclc=|doi=|id=|pages=64–68|chapter=Korstoget mot schächtningen|chapterurl=|quote=}}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
103. ^Johansen, p. 69
104. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/137759#.UIQtdGeJmSo |title=New Zealand Bans Kosher Slaughtering |date=May 30, 2010 |accessdate=October 21, 2012 |last=Ben Gedalyahu |first=Tzvi |work=Arutz Sheva}}
105. ^1 2 {{cite web |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10690598 |title=MP Carter makes quick u-turn |date=November 28, 2010 |accessdate=October 21, 2012 |last=Fisher |first=David |work=The New Zealand Herald}}
106. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/uploads/materials/e334cdbf9d816489a47b2e08e09ff5a11d12cdee.pdf |title=RESOLUTION: GB1106-5 |date=June 19–21, 2011 |publisher=World Jewish Congress |accessdate=May 23, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111211052439/http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/uploads/materials/e334cdbf9d816489a47b2e08e09ff5a11d12cdee.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2011 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}
107. ^1 Anti-Shechita, Modiya, 2004?, accessed September 18, 2006
108. ^{{cite web|title=SwitzerlandInternational Religious Freedom Report 2006|url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71411.htm|accessdate=7 November 2010}}
109. ^1 {{Cite news |url=https://www.jta.org/2017/08/16/news-opinion/world/swiss-lawmakers-to-vote-on-banning-import-of-kosher-halal-meat |title=Swiss lawmakers to vote on banning import of kosher, halal meat |work=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |date=16 August 2017 |accessdate=21 June 2018}}
110. ^Dickter, Adam, Fear over European kosher bans, World Jewish Review, July 2002
111. ^Wistrich, Robert S., "European Anti-Semitism Reinvents Itself {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502002625/http://www.ajc.org/atf/cf/%7B42D75369-D582-4380-8395-D25925B85EAF%7D/wistrich.pdf |date=2014-05-02 }}", American Jewish Committee, 2005, pg 10
112. ^Switzerland: The struggle for Sh'chitah (Jewish Virtual Library)
113. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2002-3/switzerland.htm |title=The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism |access-date=7 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119113047/http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2002-3/switzerland.htm |archive-date=19 November 2012 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}
114. ^Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust, by Charles Patterson, Ph.D., describes disturbing parallels between how the Nazis treated their victims and how modern society treats animals. The title is taken from the Yiddish writer and Nobel Laureate Isaac Bashevis Singer, himself a vegetarian: "In relation to them, all people are Nazis; for the animals it is an eternal Treblinka."[https://www.amazon.com/Eternal-Treblinka-Treatment-Animals-Holocaust/dp/1930051999#_ Eternal Treblinka]
115. ^Transcription: Ritual Slaughter Ban, Living on Earth, republished by Vegans Represent June 10, 2003, accessed September 18, 2006
116. ^  7 U.S.C.A. § 1902. Humane methods
117. ^Temple Grandin, "Recommended Ritual Slaughter Practices"
118. ^Maximizing animal welfare in kosher slaughter. Temple Grandin
119. ^"Shackling and Hoisting", The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative movement. The Rabbinical Assembly, New York, 2002.
120. ^PETA investigation of Agriprocessors, with video
121. ^"Orthodox Union Statement of Rabbis and Certifying Agencies on Recent Publicity on Kosher Slaughter" {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20041214171347/http://www.ou.org/other/5765/shechita2-65.htm |date=2004-12-14 }}
122. ^"Statement of Dr. Temple Grandin, Consultant to the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the American Meat Institute"
123. ^Prof. Grandin is Satisfied With AgriProcessors Slaughter Practices
124. ^{{Cite news |title = Slaughter expert calls Agriprocessors 'sloppy' |author = Waddington, Lynda |url = http://iowaindependent.com/5357/slaughter-expert-calls-agriprocessors-sloppy |date = September 11, 2008 |publisher = Iowa Independent |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100207044643/http://iowaindependent.com/5357/slaughter-expert-calls-agriprocessors-sloppy |archivedate = February 7, 2010 |df = }}

Further reading

  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20111211052439/http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/uploads/materials/e334cdbf9d816489a47b2e08e09ff5a11d12cdee.pdf RESOLUTION: GB1106-5 World Jewish Congress]
  • Pascal Krauthammer Das Schächtverbot in der Schweiz: Die Schächtfrage zwischen Tierschutz, Politik und Fremdenfeindlichkeit von Pascal Krauthammer Schulthess, Zürich 2000 ( Zürcher Studien zur Rechtsgeschichte, Band 42) (The Prohibition of Ritual Slaughter in Switzerland. The Ritual Slaughter Issue from the aspects of Animal Protection, Politics and Xenophobia. Zurich Studies in Legal History, Volume 42) (Doctoral dissertation in German with an English summary included)
  • Per Ole Johansen Oss selv nærmest. Norge og jødene 1914–1943. (Korstoget mot schæchtningen pp. 62–68){{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} I'm alright, Jack (Look after Number One) Norway and the Jews 1914–1943 (The Crusade against Ritual Slaughter pp. 62–68)
  • Legislation protecting shechita : text of laws and regulations in various countries / compiled by Michael L. Munk; Agudath Israel of America. Legislative Commission of Agudath Israel of America, 1976
  • Pablo Lerner and Alfredo Mordechai Rabello, The Prohibition of Ritual Slaughtering (Kosher Shechita and Halal) and Freedom of Religion of Minorities, Journal of Law and Religion, vol. 22, no. 1 (2006/2007), pp. 1–62.
  • John M. Efron: The Most Cruel Cut of All? The Campaign Against Jewish Ritual Slaughter in Fin-de-Siècle Switzerland and Germany. Abstracts of 3 touching on Switzerland and anti-shehitah legislation.
  • Michael F. Metcalf "Regulating slaughter: animal protection and Antisemitism in Scandinavia, 1880–1941" in Patterns of Prejudice; 23 (1989)
  • Robin Judd Contested Rituals: Circumcision, Kosher Butchering, and Jewish Political Life in Germany, 1843–1933 Cornell University Press 2007
  • Solomon David Sassoon. A Critical Study of Electrical Stunning and the Jewish Method of Slaughter (Shehita). Letchworth Herts. 48pp
  • [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:U7rlQN-LKqoJ:www.whatdotheyknow.com/request/31616/response/85872/attach/6/Part%252009%2520Dissertation..pdf+levinger+vegetarian+shechita&hl=sv&gl=se&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShO9qohEQWYLOs8JJjTWzOsc0r17CYrQFcBrwx9rr8GuZFsA7OPPuFGRbG_axqKKpV-xC4ba4WUEkSFQVxwjl9YkzZ0bKlcFBBuuPKyMr3uT-9a4ikqrEUR6yTD3yfxq5qc6GJY&sig=AHIEtbRYbgPVLZA6jPCmR8J-RwviOaHFyg&pli=1 Challenges to Shechita and its Protection by Government and Legislation in Late 20th Century Britain Neville Kesselman]
  • Kenneth Collins Abstract: A Community on Trial: The Aberdeen Shechita Case, 1893
  • Anti-Semitism without Hatred? The Animal Protection Movement and the Semantics of Kosher Slaughter in Norway 1895–1913{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
  • A comparative report of the public debates on religious slaughter in Germany, UK, France & Norway. DIALREL Encouraging Dialoge in Issues of Religious Slaughter. Comparative report: Lill M Vramo & Taina Bucher National Reports (in appendix) Florence Bergeaud-Blecker (French report) Adrian Evans (UK report) Taina Bucher, Lill M. Vramo & Ellen Esser (German report) Taina Bucher, Laura Terragni & Lill M. Vramo (Norwegian report) 01/03/2009
  • [https://www.victoria.ac.nz/law/research/publications/vuwlr/prev-issues/pdf/vol-42-2011/issue-4/04-Silver.pdf Understanding Freedom of Religion in a Religious Industry :Kosher Slaughter (Shechita) Joel Silver]
  • J. Lavy Enchanting a Disenchanted Law: On Jewish Ritual and Secular History in 19th Century Germany{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
  • Farm Animal Welfare, a Voyage of Discovery Huw Davies (General background on sheep farming)
  • Account of the US legislation on kosher slaughter in the USA summarized from: Isaac Lewin Personalities and Historical Events, Mossad Harav Kook Yerushalayim 1988
  • Hearings (House of Representatives) in connection with the US Humane Slaughter Act, including a statement by Rabbi Isaac Lewin, professor at Yeshiva University, New York, April 12, 1957 (p. 35)
  • Government Regulations of Shechita (Jewish Religious Slaughter) in the Twenty-First Century: Are they Ethical? Ari Z. Zivotofsky
{{DEFAULTSORT:Legal Aspects Of Ritual Slaughter}}Polémique de 2012 sur l'abattage rituel

13 : Ritual slaughter|European Court of Human Rights cases involving France|Food law|Traditional meat processing|Kosher food|Halal food|Judaism-related controversies|Animals in the Bible|Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights|Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights|Cruelty to animals|Animal rights|Animal welfare and rights legislation
随便看

　

开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。

　

Copyright © 2023 OENC.NET All Rights Reserved
京ICP备2021023879号 更新时间：2024/11/12 10:15:11