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词条 LGBT rights in Japan
释义

  1. History

  2. Terminology

  3. Legality of same-sex sexual activity

  4. Recognition of same-sex relationships

  5. Discrimination protections

     Employment discrimination  Housing discrimination  Bullying in schools 

  6. Adoption and parenting

  7. Gender identity and expression

  8. Blood donation

  9. Celebrities

  10. Political support

  11. Summary table

  12. See also

  13. Notes

  14. References

  15. External links

{{About|LGBT legal rights in Japan|a general overview|Homosexuality in Japan}}{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2011}}{{Infobox LGBT rights
| location_header = Japan
| image = Japan (orthographic projection).svg
| caption = Japan
| legal_status = Legal since 1880
| penalty =
| gender_identity_expression = Change of legal sex allowed since 2003, following sex reassignment surgery
| recognition_of_relationships = No nationwide recognition of same-sex relationships (symbolic partnership certificates offered by some cities)
| adoption =
| military = Yes
| discrimination_protections = Sexual orientation protected in some cities, though not nationally[1]
}}{{LGBT rights}}

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) rights in Japan are relatively progressive by Asian standards, although LGBT people lack full legal equality.[2] Same-sex sexual activity was criminalised only briefly in Japan's history between 1872 and 1880, after which a localised version of the Napoleonic Penal Code was adopted with an equal age of consent.[3] Same-sex couples and households headed by same-sex couples are ineligible for the legal protections available to opposite-sex couples, although since 2015 some cities offer "partnership certificates" to recognise the relationships of same-sex couples.

Japan's culture and major religions do not have a history of hostility towards homosexuality.[4] A majority of Japanese citizens are reportedly in favor of accepting homosexuality, with a 2013 poll indicating that 54 percent agreed that homosexuality should be accepted by society, while 36 percent disagreed, with a large age gap.[5] Although many political parties have not openly supported or opposed LGBT rights, there are several openly LGBT politicians in office. A law allowing transgender individuals to change their legal gender post-sex reassignment surgery was passed in 2002. Discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity is banned in certain cities, including Tokyo.[6]

Tokyo Rainbow Pride has been held annually since 2012, with attendance increasing every year.[7] A 2015 opinion poll found that a majority of Japanese support the legalisation of same-sex marriage.[8] Further opinion polls conducted over the following years have found high levels of support for same-sex marriage among the Japanese public, most notably the younger generation.[9]

History

{{main|Homosexuality in Japan}}

Homosexuality and same-sex relations have been documented in Japan since ancient times.

In the pre-Meiji period, nanshoku (男色) relationships inside Buddhist monasteries were typically pederastic. The older partner, or {{nihongo|nenja|念者||"lover" or "admirer"}}, would be a monk, priest or abbot, while the younger partner was assumed to be an {{nihongo|acolyte|稚児|chigo}}, who would be a prepubescent or adolescent boy.[10] The relationship would be dissolved once the boy reached adulthood (or left the monastery). Both parties were encouraged to treat the relationship seriously and conduct the affair honorably, and the nenja might be required to write a formal vow of fidelity.[11] During the Tokugawa period, some of the Shinto gods, especially Hachiman, Myoshin, Shinmei and Tenjin, "came to be seen as guardian deities of nanshoku" (male–male love).

From religious circles, same-sex love spread to the warrior (samurai) class, where it was customary for a boy in the wakashū age category to undergo training in the martial arts by apprenticing to a more experienced adult man. The relationship was based on the typical nenja, who loves, and the typically younger chigo, who is loved.[12] The man was permitted, if the boy agreed, to take the boy as his lover until he came of age.[13] These relationships were expected to be exclusive, with both partners swearing to take no other (male) lovers.

As Japan progressed into the Meiji era, same-sex practices continued. However, there was a growing animosity towards these practices. The practice of nanshoku began to die out after the Russo-Japanese War. Opposition to homosexuality did not become firmly established in Japan until the 19th and 20th centuries, through the Westernization efforts of the Empire of Japan.[12]

Terminology

Modern Japanese terms for LGBT people include {{nihongo3|literally "same-sex-love person"|同性愛者|dōseiaisha}}, {{nihongo3|"gay"|ゲイ|gei}}, {{nihongo3|"homosexual"|ホモセクシャル|homosekusharu}}, {{nihongo3|"lesbian"|レズビアン|rezubian}}, {{nihongo3|"bisexual"|バイセクシュアル|baisekushuaru}} and {{nihongo3|"transgender"|トランスジェンダー|toransujendā}}.[14]

Legality of same-sex sexual activity

{{See also|Age of consent in Asia}}

Homosexuality is legal in Japan. There are no explicit religious prohibitions against homosexuality in the traditional religion of Japan, Shintoism, or in the imported religions of Buddhism (see "Buddhism and sexual orientation") or Confucianism.

Sodomy was first criminalized in Japan in 1872, in the early Meiji era, to comply with the newly introduced beliefs of Western culture and the Qing legal codes. But this provision was repealed only seven years later by the Penal Code of 1880 in accordance with the Napoleonic Penal Code.[15] Since then, Japan has had no laws against homosexuality. Thus, sex among consenting adults, in private, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender, is legal under Japanese law.

The federal age of consent in Japan is 13 years old under the Japanese Criminal Law Code. However, all municipalities and prefectures have their own particular laws such as Tokyo's Youth Protection Law which prohibit sexual activity with youths who are under 18 years old in most circumstances. As an added note, even though the age of consent in Japan can be 13, the voting age is 18. The age of majority is 20 (a law to lower the age of majority to 18 is scheduled to take effect in 2022)[17] and the driving age is 18.[16][17]

Recognition of same-sex relationships

{{Main article|Recognition of same-sex unions in Japan}}

Article 24 of the Japanese Constitution states that "Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis."

As a result, articles 731 to 737 of the Japanese Civil Code limit marriage to different-sex couples. Same-sex couples are not able to marry, and same-sex couples are not granted rights derived from marriage. Also, same-sex marriages performed abroad are not legally recognized in Japan and bi-national same-sex couples cannot obtain a visa for the foreign partner based on their relationship.[18]

In March 2009, Japan began allowing Japanese nationals to marry same-sex partners in countries where same-sex marriage is legal. The Justice Ministry instructed local authorities to issue key certificates, which state that a person is single and of legal age, to individuals seeking to enter same-sex marriages in areas that legally allow it. Though same-sex marriages are not legally recognized within Japan, allowing its citizens to marry same-sex partners overseas is seen as a first step toward the eventual legalization of such marriages in Japan.[19]

In February 2015, the district of Shibuya (in Tokyo) announced plans for a procedure of the recognition of same-sex couples for situations such as hospital visits and shared renting of apartments. This procedure allows couples to get a "proof of partnership" paper, which is not based in Japanese law, but can help in, for instance, getting access to a partner who is ill and in hospital. The Shibuya initiative is considered a significant step towards lesbian and gay partnership rights in Japan.[20] In July 2015, Tokyo's Setagaya ward announced that it would be joining Shibuya in recognizing same-sex partnerships from November of the same year.[21] Since then, the cities of Iga, Takarazuka, Naha, Sapporo, Fukuoka, Osaka, Nakano, Ōizumi and Chiba have begun issuing partnership certificates to same-sex couples.[22] Similar registrations will become effective in Toshima, Fuchū, Hida, Kumamoto, Sōja, Yokosuka, Odawara, Sakai, Miyazaki, and Kitakyushu in 2019, and Narashino in 2020.

Discrimination protections

As of 2018, sexual orientation is not protected by national civil rights laws, which means that LGBT Japanese have few legal recourses when they face such discrimination in such areas as employment, education, housing, health care and banking.[23]

However, cases of discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation remain relatively uncommon in Japan. Similarly, the Japan Self-Defense Forces, when being asked about their policy toward gays and lesbians following the U.S. debate during the Clinton presidency, answered that it was not an issue, and individuals within the forces indicated that as long as same-sex relations did not lead to fights or other trouble, there were few, if any, barriers to their inclusion in the armed services.[24]

The Japanese Constitution promises equal rights and is interpreted to prohibit discrimination on all grounds. However, homosexual and transgender persons can experience physical, sexual and psychological violence at the hands of their opposite-sex or same-sex partners, but receive no protection from the law. Same-sex partners are excluded from the Law for the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims and generally lack safe places where they can seek help and support. Japan is a party to the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which also comprehensively bans discrimination.[25]

In 2013, Yodogawa-ku, Osaka became the first Japanese government area to pass a resolution officiating support for LGBT inclusion, including mandating LGBT sensitivity training for ward staff.[26][27][28][29] Naha followed suit in July 2015.[30]

In October 2018, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government passed a law prohibiting all discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. The law, scheduled to take effect in April 2019, also commits the Government to raise awareness of LGBT people and "conduct measures needed to make sure human rights values are rooted in all corners of the city". The law outlaws expressing hateful rhetoric in public.[31][32] Prior to this, the wards of Shibuya and Setagaya had already passed explicit protections for LGBT people.[35][36]

In December 2018, four political parties, the Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan, the Democratic Party for the People, the Japanese Communist Party, and the Liberal Party along with the support of several independents, introduced to the House of Representatives a bill (性的指向又は性自認を理由とする差別の解消等の推進に関する法律案){{efn|Rōmaji: seiteki shikou matahasei jinin wo riyuu to suru sabetsuno kaishoutou no suishin nikansuru houritsuan}} to prohibit discrimination, harassment and bullying at schools on the basis of sexual orientation.[33][34]

Employment discrimination

While the Equal Opportunity Law has been revised several times over the years to address sex discrimination and harassment in the workplace, the Government has refused to expand the law to address discrimination against gender or sexual identity.[35] The Tokyo Metropolitan Government has passed legislation banning discrimination in employment based on sexual orientation and gender identity.[35]

Companies in Japan consisting of ten or more employees are required to establish work regulations. In January 2018, the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare revised the Model Rules of Employment (モデル就業規則){{efn|Rōmaji: moderu shuugyoukisoku}} which "stands as the example framework for work regulations", to prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation and "gender identification".[36] Article 15 reads:[36]

{{quote|In addition to what are provided for from Article 12 to the preceding paragraph, employees are prohibited from any other forms of harassment at the workplace that are damaging to the work environment of other employees such as by way of speech or behaviour related to sexual orientation or gender identification.}}

Housing discrimination

In 1990, the group OCCUR (Japan Association for the Lesbian and Gay Movement)[37] won a court case against a Tokyo government policy that barred gay and lesbian youth from using the "Metropolitan House for Youth". While the court ruling does not seem to have extended to other areas of government-sponsored discrimination, it is cited by the courts as a civil rights case.[38]

Since autumn 2003, the Urban Renaissance Agency, the government agency that operates government housing (公団住宅){{efn|Rōmaji: koudanjuutaku}}, has allowed same-sex couples to rent units the same way as heterosexual couples at any one of the over 300 properties that it operates. This opened the way for more such action, as the Osaka Government in September 2005 opened the doors of its government housing to same-sex couples.[39]

In February 2018, the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare created provisions addressing discrimination in housing, stating that "consideration must be taken to not deny lodging on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity."[36]

Bullying in schools

In 2017, the Education Ministry added sexual orientation and gender identity to its national bullying policy.[38][40] The policy mandates that schools should prevent bullying of students based on their sexual orientation or gender identity by "promoting proper understanding of teachers on … sexual orientation/gender identity as well as making sure to inform on the school's necessary measures regarding this matter."

In January 2018, after a high-profile incident in 2015, in which a gay student at Hitotsubashi University committed suicide after being outed against his will, the city of Kunitachi passed an "anti-outing" ordinance to promote understanding of LGBT people.[41]

Adoption and parenting

Same-sex couples are not allowed to legally adopt in Japan. Lesbian couples and single women are unable to access IVF and artificial insemination.[42]

In April 2017, Osaka officially recognised a same-sex couple as foster parents, making it the first such case in Japan.[43]

Gender identity and expression

In 2002, a law was passed allowing transgender people who have gone through sex reassignment surgery to change their gender on their legal documents. However, sterilization is required, among many other challenging criteria. The law went into effect in 2003,[44] and was upheld by the Supreme Court of Japan in January 2019. By that date, 7,000 persons had legally changed gender. The Court wanted to prevent "confusion" within parent-child relations, as well as "abrupt changes" in Japanese society. Two of the majority judges still issued a call for society to "embrace the diversity of sexual identity", also adding that the requirements were invasive and encouraged the National Diet to review them.[45]

On 24 February 2012, the Hyogo Lawyers' Association pronounced a recommendation for a transgender woman in a male prison to be transferred to a female institution.[46] According to this report, the transgender woman was placed in a male institution because of her legal status of sex, despite having undergone sex reassignment surgery prior to her detention, and had had her body checked by a male member of staff, her hair shaved and was refused any feminine treatment including female clothing.

Since April 2018, transgender people have been covered for sex reassignment surgery as long as they are not receiving hormone treatment.[47] The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare has also allowed transgender people to use their preferred names on their health insurance cards.

In June 2018, the Japanese Government enacted a new law lowering the age of majority in Japan to 18. Among others, the new law sets the age of marriage at 18 for both men and women (previously women could marry at the age of 16) and allows 18-year-olds to obtain valid passports, credit cards, etc. The law also allows people diagnosed with gender dysphoria to legally change their sex at the age of 18.[48] The changes are scheduled to take effect on 1 April 2022.

Blood donation

Gay and bisexual men are allowed to donate blood in Japan following a 6-month deferral period.[49]

Celebrities

While representations of homosexuals in the Japanese media tend towards caricature on the basis of stereotypes of sexual or behavioral deviance (e.g. the actually straight Hard Gay), there are several examples of transgender persons with popular celebrity status in Japan such as Haruna Ai, Kayo Satoh, Matsuko Deluxe, Ataru Nakamura, Kaba-chan and Ikko. Support for LGBT rights has been expressed by corporate executives and Olympic athlete Dai Tamesue.[50]

Political support

LGBT rights are rarely discussed or debated publicly, and most political parties do not make any formal position in favor of, or opposition to, LGBT rights in their party's platform or manifesto. However, some parties have responded to enquiries concerning same-sex marriage policy: the Liberal Democratic Party has indicated opposition to legalizing it, and the Constitutional Democratic Party and the Social Democratic Party have indicated support for legalization, while the Communist Party has indicated support for legalizing same-sex civil unions.[51]

In 2001, the Council for Human Rights Promotion, under the Ministry of Justice, recommended that sexual orientation be included in the nation's civil rights code, but the Diet refused to adopt the recommendation.

In 2003, Aya Kamikawa became the first openly transgender politician to be elected to public office in Japan, the Setagaya Ward Assembly. She initially ran as an Independent but expressed support for the now defunct Rainbow and Greens Party of Japan and later unsuccessfully ran for the National Parliament as a member of the Democratic Party of Japan.

In 2005, Kanako Otsuji, from the Osaka Prefectural Assembly, became the first homosexual politician to formally come out at the Tokyo Gay Pride Festival.

In 2011, Taiga Ishikawa became the first openly gay candidate elected to office in Japan, specifically as the representative for the local assembly of Toshima Ward.[52] He came out publicly in his book "Where Is My Boyfriend" (2002), and started a non-profit organization that sponsors social events for gay men in Japan.

At the 2016 House of Councillors election, the conservative governing Liberal Democratic Party included "promoting understanding of sexual diversity" in its platform, a move that would have been "unthinkable" in earlier times and that lawmaker Gaku Hashimoto attributed in part to burnishing the country's international image in advance of the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.[2]

In March 2017, Tomoya Hosoda was elected to the Iruma Assembly, in the prefecture of Saitama. Hosoda is believed to be the first openly transgender man elected to public office in the world.[53]

During the country's 2017 general election, Governor of Tokyo Yuriko Koike's newly launched Party of Hope pledged the elimination of LGBT discrimination in its manifesto.[54]

in 2019, former Defense Minister Tomomi Inada said she was unsure whether she would be able to introduce new legislation seeking greater tolerance of same-sex relationships amid opposition from her Liberal Democratic Party colleagues. While Inada announced she wishes to "promote understanding" of LGBT people, she stated she is not trying to get Japan to legalize same-sex marriage or ban discrimination against LGBT citizens. Some Liberal Democratic Party members made controversial statements, such as Katsuei Hirasawa who argued in a speech in February 2019 that the "nation would collapse" if everyone were gay. Another ruling party lawmaker, Mio Sugita, published a magazine article in 2018 describing same-sex couples as "unproductive" because they do not have children.[55]

Summary table

Same-sex sexual activity legal (Since 1880; was illegal from 1872–1880; before that there were no laws forbidding same-sex relationships)
Equal age of consent (Since 1880)
Anti-discrimination laws in employment / (In Tokyo)
Anti-discrimination laws in the provision of goods and services / (In Tokyo since 2019)
Anti-discrimination laws in all other areas (incl. indirect discrimination, hate speech) / (In Tokyo since 2019)
Same-sex marriage(s)
Recognition of same-sex couples (Some jurisdictions offer "partnership certificates", however, they are entirely symbolic)
Stepchild adoption by same-sex couples
Joint adoption by same-sex couples
Lesbian, gay and bisexual people allowed to serve in the military
Right to change legal gender (Since 2003; under certain restrictions (must undergo surgery, sterilization and have no children under 20))
Conversion therapy on minors and adults banned
Access to IVF for lesbians
Commercial surrogacy for gay male couples (Banned regardless of sexual orientation)
MSM allowed to donate blood / (6-month deferral period)

See also

{{portal|LGBT|Human rights|Japan}}
  • Human rights in Japan
  • Situation of homosexuals in the Japanese armed forces
  • LGBT rights in Asia

Notes

{{notelist}}

References

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38. ^1 2 3 {{cite web|url=http://outleadership.com/japan/|title=Japan - Out Leadership|publisher=|accessdate=8 April 2018}}
39. ^{{cite web|url=http://webcatplus.nii.ac.jp/webcatplus/details/book/6980828.html |title=Kampf um das soziale Ordnungsgefüge - Webcat Plus |language=ja |website=Webcatplus.nii.ac.jp |date= |accessdate=2017-07-21}}
40. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/03/24/japan-anti-bullying-policy-protect-lgbt-students|title=Japan: Anti-Bullying Policy to Protect LGBT Students|date=24 March 2017|publisher=|accessdate=8 April 2018}}
41. ^1 2 3 {{cite web|url=http://www.nijiironews.com/2019/01/03/2018-lgbt-news-in-japan-roundup/|title=2018 LGBT News in Japan Roundup|publisher=Nijiiro News|date=3 January 2019}}
42. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.advocate.com/commentary/2016/3/07/making-lgbt-families-possibility-japan|title=Making LGBT Families a Possibility in Japan|date=7 March 2016|publisher=|accessdate=8 April 2018}}
43. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/04/06/national/social-issues/osaka-becomes-first-japanese-city-recognize-sex-couple-foster-parents/|title=Osaka the first city in Japan to certify gay couple as foster parents|date=6 April 2017|publisher=|accessdate=8 April 2018|via=Japan Times Online}}
44. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mutantfrog.com/2008/08/11/what-the-diets-been-up-to-lately-revising-the-law-of-transgendered-people/ |title=What the Diet's been up to lately: revising the law of transgendered people |publisher=Mutantfrog.com |date=11 August 2008 |accessdate=20 January 2011}}
45. ^{{Cite web |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/25/asia/japan-supreme-court-trans-intl/index.html |title=Sterilization rule for changing gender upheld in Japan |website=CNN |publication-date=2019-01-25}}
46. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/national/news/20120224-OYT1T00961.htm?from=tw|title=Hygo|publisher=|accessdate=8 April 2018}}
47. ^[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/06/14/national/social-issues/japans-social-security-net-transgender-people-improving-obstacles-loom-seniors/ Japan’s social security net for transgender people improving but obstacles loom for seniors]
48. ^1 [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-44465196 Coming of age: Why adults in Japan are getting younger], PinkNews, 13 June 2018
49. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.jrc.or.jp/donation/about/refrain/detail_04/ |publisher=Japanese Red Cross Society |accessdate=2016-06-14|language=ja|title=エイズ、肝炎などのウイルス保有者、またはそれと疑われる方|quote=... 輸血を必要とする患者さんへの感染を防ぐため、過去6カ月間に下記に該当する方は、献血をご遠慮いただいています。... 男性どうしの性的接触があった。 (Translation: To prevent infecting patients requiring blood transfusion, those who match any of the following within the last six months should refrain from donating blood. ... Sexual contact between two males.)}}
50. ^{{cite news|last1=Snow|first1=Nancy|title=Japan’s race for the LGBT gold in Asia|url=https://japantoday.com/category/features/lifestyle/japan%E2%80%99s-race-for-the-lgbt-gold-in-asia|accessdate=16 October 2017|work=Japan Today|date=30 September 2017}}
51. ^{{cite web|last=Inada |first=Miho |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2013/09/20/same-sex-marriage-in-japan-a-long-way-away/ |title=Same-Sex Marriage in Japan: A Long Way Away? - Japan Real Time - WSJ |publisher=Blogs.wsj.com |date=2013-09-20 |accessdate=2014-06-16}}
52. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tokyomango.com/tokyo_mango/2011/05/taiga-ishikawa-is-japans-first-openly-gay-elected-official.html |title=Taiga Ishikawa is Japan's first openly gay elected official |publisher=Tokyomango.com |date=2011-05-09 |accessdate=2014-06-16}}
53. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/japan-first-world-transgender-man-public-office-councillor-iruma-saitama-kanto-a7636641.html|title=Japan becomes first country in the world to elect transgender man to a public office|date=18 March 2017|publisher=|accessdate=8 April 2018}}
54. ^{{cite news|last1=Reynolds|first1=Isabel|last2=Nobuhiro|first2=Emi|title=Japan’s Opposition Unveils ‘Yurinomics’ Platform to Challenge Abe|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-10-06/japan-s-koike-says-she-may-tax-cash-reserves-of-large-companies|accessdate=6 October 2017|work=Bloomberg|date=6 October 2017}}
55. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/03/21/national/politics-diplomacy/uphill-battle-ldp-lawmaker-fights-lgbt-rights-japan/|title=Tomomi Inada's uphill battle to 'promote understanding' of LGBT issues in Japan|work=The Japan Times|date=21 March 2019}}

External links

  • {{Youtube|kVUyw8Pob68|LGBT Students Bullied in Japan}}. Human Rights Watch (8 July 2016)
{{Commons category|LGBT in Japan}}{{LGBT in Japan}}{{Japan topics}}{{Asia in topic|LGBT rights in}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Lgbt Rights In Japan}}

8 : Human rights in Japan|Japanese culture|Japanese law|LGBT in Japan|LGBT rights by country|LGBT rights in Asia|Marriage, unions and partnerships in Japan|Politics of Japan
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