“Dalmatian language”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Dalmatian {{IPAc-en|d|æ|l|ˈ|m|eɪ|ʃ|ən}}^[1]^[2] or Dalmatic {{IPAc-en|d|æ|l|ˈ|m|æ|t|ɪ|k}}^[1] was a Romance language spoken in the Dalmatia region of present-day Croatia, and as far south as Kotor in Montenegro. The name refers to a tribe of the Illyrian linguistic group, Dalmatae. The Ragusan dialect of Dalmatian was the official language of the Republic of Ragusa, although in later times Venetian (representing the Romance language population), then Eastern Herzegovinian dialect of Serbo-Croatian called Dubrovnik subdialect (for the Slavophone population), came to supersede it.{{fact|date=October 2017}}

Dalmatian speakers lived in the coastal towns of Zadar ({{lang|dlm|Jadera}}), Trogir ({{lang|dlm|Tragur, Traù}}), Spalato (Split; {{lang|dlm|Spalato}}), Ragusa (Dubrovnik; {{lang|dlm|Raugia, Ragusa}}), and Kotor ({{lang|dlm|Cattaro}}), each of these cities having a local dialect, and on the islands of Krk ({{lang|dlm|Vikla, Veglia}}), Cres ({{lang|dlm|Crepsa}}), and Rab ({{lang|dlm|Arba}}).{{citation needed|reason=Can any of these supposed Dalmatian names for these places be cited?|date=November 2015}}

Dialects

Almost every city developed its own dialect. Most of these became extinct before they were recorded, so the only trace of these ancient dialects is some words borrowed into local dialects of today's Croatia and Montenegro.{{fact|date=October 2017}}

Ragusan is the Southern dialect, whose name is derived from the Romance name of Dubrovnik, Ragusa. It came to the attention of modern scholars in two letters, from 1325 and 1397, and other mediaeval texts, which show a language influenced heavily by Venetian. The available sources include some 260 Ragusan words including {{lang|dlm|pen}} 'bread', {{lang|dlm|teta}} 'father', {{lang|dlm|chesa}} 'house', and {{lang|dlm|fachir}} 'to do', which were quoted by the Dalmatian Filippo Diversi, the rector of Ragusa in the 1430s.{{fact|date=October 2017}}

The Maritime Republic of Ragusa had, at one time, an important fleet, but its influence decreased over time, to the point that, by the 15th century, it had been reduced to only about 300 ships.^[3] The language was threatened by the Slav expansion, as the Ragusan Senate decided that all debates had to be held in {{lang|dlm|lingua veteri ragusea}} (ancient Ragusan language) and the use of the Slav was forbidden. Nevertheless, during the 16th century, Ragusan fell out of use and came to the brink of extinction.{{fact|date=October 2017}}

Vegliot (the native name being {{lang|dlm|Viklasun}})^[4] is the Northern dialect. The language's name is derived from the Italian name of Krk, {{lang|it|Veglia}}, an island in Kvarner, called Vikla in Vegliot. On the inscription dating from the beginning of the 4th century CE, Krk is named as {{lang|la|Splendissima civitas Curictarum}}. The Serbo-Croatian name derives from the Roman name ({{lang|la|Curicum, Curicta}}), whereas the younger name {{lang|dlm|Vecla, Vegla, Veglia}} (meaning {{lang|en|"Old Town"}}) was created in the mediaeval Romanesque period.{{fact|date=October 2017}}

History

Dalmatian evolved from the vulgar Latin of the Illyro-Romans. It was spoken on the Dalmatian coast from Fiume (now Rijeka) as far south as Cottora (Kotor) in Montenegro. Speakers lived mainly in the coastal towns of Jadera (Zadar), Tragurium (Trogir), Spalatum^[5] (Split), Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and Acruvium (Kotor), and also on the islands of Curicta (Krk), Crepsa (Cres) and Arba (Rab). Almost every city developed its own dialect, but the most important dialects we know of were Vegliot, a northern dialect spoken on the island of Curicta, and Ragusan, a southern dialect spoken in and around Ragusa (Dubrovnik).{{fact|date=October 2017}}

The oldest preserved documents written in Dalmatian are 13th century inventories in Ragusa (Dubrovnik). Dalmatian is also known from two Ragusan letters, dated 1325 and 1397. The available sources include roughly 260 Ragusan words. Surviving words include {{lang|dlm|pen}} 'bread', {{lang|dlm|teta}} 'father', {{lang|dlm|chesa}} 'house', and {{lang|dlm|fachir}} 'to do', which were quoted by the Dalmatian, Filippo Diversi, Rector of the republic of Ragusa in the 1430s. The earliest reference to the Dalmatian language dates from the tenth century and it has been estimated that about 50,000 people spoke it at that time, though the main source of this information, the Italian linguist Matteo Bartoli, may have exaggerated his figures.{{fact|date=October 2017}}

Dalmatian was influenced particularly heavily by Venetian and Serbo-Croatian (despite the latter, the Latin roots of Dalmatian remained prominent). A 14th-century letter from Zadar (origin of the Iadera dialect) shows strong influence from Venetian, the language that after years under Venetian rule superseded Iadera and other dialects of Dalmatian. Other dialects met their demise with the settlement of populations of Slavic speakers.{{fact|date=October 2017}}

Extinction

In 1897, the scholar Matteo Bartoli, himself a native of nearby Istria, visited burbur ('barber' in Dalmatian{{citation needed|reason=Tuone Udaina article says it means grumpy|date=January 2018}}) Tuone Udaina ({{lang-it|Antonio Udina}}), the last speaker of any Dalmatian dialect, to study his language, writing down approximately 2,800 words, stories, and accounts of his life, which were published in a book that has provided much information on the vocabulary, phonology, and grammar of the language. Bartoli wrote in Italian and published a translation in German ({{lang|de|Das Dalmatische}}) in 1906. The Italian language manuscripts were reportedly lost, and the work was not re-translated into Italian until 2001.{{fact|date=October 2017}}

Just one year later, on 10 June 1898, Tuone Udaina was accidentally killed at 74 in a roadwork explosion.^[6]^[7]

Classification

In the most recent classification from 2017 it was classified by the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History with the Istriot language in the Dalmatian Romance subgroup.^[8]

Once it was thought to be a language that bridged the gap between the Romanian language and Italian, it was only distantly related to the nearby Romanian dialects, such as the nearly extinct Istro-Romanian, spoken in nearby Istria, Croatia.

Some of its features are quite archaic. Dalmatian is the only Romance language that has palatalised {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} before {{IPA|/i/}}, but not before {{IPA|/e/}} (others have palatalised them in both situations, except Sardinian, which has not palatalised them at all): {{lang-la|civitate}} > Vegliot: {{lang|dlm|cituot}} ({{lang|en|"city"}}), {{lang-la|cenare}} > Vegliot: {{lang|dlm|kenur}} ({{lang|en|"to dine"}}).{{fact|date=October 2017}}

Some Dalmatian words have been preserved as borrowings in South Slavic languages, mainly in Chakavian.{{fact|date=October 2017}}

Similarities to Romanian

Among the similarities with Romanian, some consonant shifts can be found among the Romance languages only in Dalmatian and Romanian:{{fact|date=October 2017}}

Vlachs/Morlachs from Dalmatia and their language

Vlachs (Aromanians) from Herzegovina and Dalmatia were known as "Caravlachs" during Turkish occupation. "Cara" means black in Turkish and North in Turkish geography. Translated in Italian, the name became Morlachs (from Mauro Vlachs)^[9]

Vlachs or Morlachs spoke a language close to Romanian^[10] Vlachs or Morlachs were spreding in all Dalmatian spaces including Adriatic isles and towns. Majority were Slavicized and many of them were Islamized or Catholicized. ^[11] Today there are only a dozen of Morlachs in Croatia and they lost their matern Romance-speaking language.

Grammar

An analytic trend can be observed in Dalmatian: nouns and adjectives began to lose their gender and number inflexions, the noun declension disappeared completely, and the verb conjugations began to follow the same path, but the verb maintained a person and number distinction except in the third person (in common with Romanian and several dialects of Italy).{{fact|date=October 2017}}

The definite article precedes the noun, unlike in the Eastern Romance languages like Romanian, which have it postposed to the noun.{{fact|date=October 2017}}

Vocabulary

Dalmatian kept Latin words related to urban life, lost (or if preserved, not with the original sense) in Romanian, such as {{lang|dlm|cituot}} {{lang|en|"city"}} (in old Romanian {{lang|ro|cetate}} means {{lang|en|"city"}}; in modern Romanian {{lang|en|"fort"}}; compare also Albanian {{lang|sq|qytet}}, borrowed from Latin, which, too, means {{lang|en|"city"}}). The Dalmatians retained an active urban society in their city-states, whereas most Romanians were driven into small mountain settlements during the Great Migrations of 400 to 800 AD.^[12]

Venetian became a major influence on the language as Venetian commercial influence grew. The Chakavian dialect and Dubrovnik Shtokavian dialect of Serbo-croatian, which were spoken outside the cities since the immigration of the Slavs, gained importance in the cities by the 16th century, and it eventually replaced Dalmatian as the day-to-day language. Nevertheless, some words were loaned into coastal Serbo-Croatian varieties:

Swadesh list

Sample

The following are examples of the Lord's Prayer in Latin, Dalmatian, Serbo-Croatian, Friulian, Italian, Istro-Romanian and Romanian:

Parable of the Prodigal Son

See also

References

1. ^¹{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|isbn=9781405881180}}
2. ^{{citation|last=Roach|first=Peter|year=2011|title=Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary|edition=18th|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521152532}}
3. ^Notizie Istorico-Critiche Sulla Antichita, Storia, e Letteratura de' Ragusei, Francesco Maria Appendini, 1803.
4. ^Bartoli, 2000
5. ^Colloquia Maruliana, Vol. 12 Travanj 2003. Zarko Muljacic — On the Dalmato-Romance in Marulić's Works (hrcak.srce.hr). Split Romance (Spalatin) are extant by the author. Zarko Muljacic has set off in the only way possible, the indirect way of attempting to trace the secrets of its historical phonology by analysing any lexemes of possible Dalmato-Romance origin that have been preserved in Marulić's Croatian works.
6. ^{{cite book |author=Eugeen Roegiest |title=Vers les sources des langues romanes: un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania |publisher=ACCO |year=2006 |page=138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMdz09HGd8kC&pg=PA138 |isbn=90-334-6094-7 }}
7. ^{{cite book |author=William B Brahms |title=Notable Last Facts: A Compendium of Endings, Conclusions, Terminations and Final Events throughout History |publisher=Reference Desk Press |year=2005 |location=Original from the University of Michigan |page=183 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wIwYAAAAIAAJ |isbn=978-0-9765325-0-7 }}
8. ^{{Cite web|url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/dalm1244|title=Glottolog 3.1 - Dalmatian Romance|last=|first=|date=|website=glottolog.org|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2018-01-21}}
9. ^Cicerone Poghirc, Romanizarea lingvistică și culturală în Balcani. In: Aromânii, istorie, limbă, destin. Coord. Neagu Giuvara, București, Editura Humanitas, 2012, p.17, {{ISBN|978-973-50-3460-3}}
10. ^John V. A. Fine,, The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century, University of Michigan Press, 1994, p.19
11. ^Silviu Dragomir, Vlahii și morlacii. Studiu din istoria românismului balcanic, Ed. Imprimeria Bornemisa, 1924, p.64
12. ^{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIAYMNOOe0YC&pg=RA2-PA100 |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=Cambridge medieval textbooks |page=100 |year=2006 |accessdate=November 20, 2009 |author=Florin Curta |isbn=978-0-521-81539-0 }}
13. ^Manfred Trummer, “Südosteuropäische Sprachen und Romanisch”, Lexikon der Romanistischen Linguistik, vol. 7: Kontakt, Migration und Kunstsprachen. Kontrastivität, Klassifikation und Typologie, eds. Günter Holtus, Michael Metzeltin & Christian Schmitt (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1998), 162.
14. ^[//dalmata.webs.com/l%20antico%20dialetto%20di%20veglia.pdf l antico dialetto di veglia - l antico dialetto di veglia.pdf]