| 词条 | Daminozide |
| 释义 |
| Watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 444260008 | ImageFile = Daminozide Structural Formula V1.svg | ImageFile_Ref = {{chemboximage|correct|??}} | ImageSize = 200 | ImageName = Skeletal formula of daminozide | IUPACName = 4-(2,2-Dimethylhydrazinyl)-4-oxobutanoic acid | OtherNames = N-(Dimethylamino)succinamic acid; Butanedioic acid mono (2,2-dimethyl hydrazine); Succinic acid 2,2-dimethyl hydrazide |Section1={{Chembox Identifiers | CASNo = 1596-84-5 | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | PubChem = 15331 | ChemSpiderID = 14593 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | UNII = F6KF33M5UB | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | EINECS = 216-485-9 | KEGG = C10996 | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | MeSHName = daminozide | RTECS = WM9625000 | Beilstein = 1863230 | SMILES = CN(C)NC(=O)CCC(O)=O | StdInChI = 1S/C6H12N2O3/c1-8(2)7-5(9)3-4-6(10)11/h3-4H2,1-2H3,(H,7,9)(H,10,11) | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = NOQGZXFMHARMLW-UHFFFAOYSA-N | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} }} |Section2={{Chembox Properties | C=6 | H=12 | N=2 | O=3 | Appearance = White crystals | MeltingPtK = 432.39 }} |Section3={{Chembox Hazards | LD50 = {{unbulleted list|>1,600 mg kg−1 (dermal, rabbit)|8,400 mg kg−1 (oral, rat)}}[1] }} |Section4={{Chembox Related | OtherFunction_label = alkanoic acids | OtherFunction = Octopine | OtherCompounds = {{unbulleted list|1,2-Dimethylhydrazine|Biurea|Bis-tris propane}} }} }}Daminozide – also known as Alar, Kylar, B-NINE, DMASA, SADH, or B 995 – is a plant growth regulator, a chemical sprayed on fruit to regulate growth, make harvest easier, and keep apples from falling off the trees before they ripen so they are red and firm for storage. Alar was first approved for use in the U.S. in 1963. It was primarily used on apples until 1989, when the manufacturer voluntarily withdrew it after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency proposed banning it based on concerns about cancer risks to consumers.[2] It was produced in the U.S. by the Uniroyal Chemical Company, Inc, (now integrated into the Chemtura Corporation), which registered daminozide for use on fruits intended for human consumption in 1963. In addition to apples and ornamental plants, they also registered for use on cherries, peaches, pears, Concord grapes, tomato transplants, and peanut vines. On fruit trees, daminozide affects flow-bud initiation, fruit-set maturity, fruit firmness and coloring, preharvest drop and market quality of fruit at harvest and during storage.[2] In 1989, the EPA made it illegal to use daminozide on U.S. food crops, but still allow for non-food crops like ornamental plants.[3] The campaign to ban AlarIn 1985, the EPA studied Alar's effects on mice and hamsters, and proposed banning its use on food crops. They submitted the proposal to the Scientific Advisory Panel (SAP), which concluded that the tests were inadequate to determine how carcinogenic the tested substances were. Later they discovered that at least one of the SAP members had a financial connection to Uniroyal, and others had financial ties to the chemical industry.[4] The next year, the EPA retracted its proposed ban and required farmers to reduce Alar use by 50%. The American Academy of Pediatrics urged EPA to ban daminozide, and some manufacturers and supermarket chains announced they would not accept Alar-treated apples.[4] In a 1989 report, the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) reported that on the basis of a two-year peer reviewed study, children were at "intolerable risk" from a wide variety of potentially lethal chemicals, including daminozide, that they ingest in legally permissible quantity. By their estimate, "The average pre-schooler's exposure was estimated to result in a cancer risk 240 times greater than the cancer risk considered acceptable by E.P.A. following a full lifetime of exposure."[5] In February, 1989, the CBS television program 60 Minutes broadcast a story about Alar that featured a report by the Natural Resources Defense Council highlighting problems with the chemical. In 1989, following the CBS broadcast, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) decided to ban Alar on the grounds that "long-term exposure" posed "unacceptable risks to public health." However, in June 1989—before the EPA's preliminary decision to ban all food uses of Alar went into effect—Uniroyal, Alar's sole manufacturer, agreed to halt voluntarily all domestic sales of Alar for food uses.[6][7][8] BacklashIn November 1990, Washington apple growers filed a lawsuit in Yakima County Superior Court against CBS, NRDC and Fenton Communications (hired by NRDC to publicize their report on Alar)[9] claiming that unfair business practices (product disparagement in particular) cost them $100 million.[8][10][11] The suit was moved from state to federal court at the request of CBS.[12] U.S. District Judge William Fremming Nielsen ruled in 1993 that the apple growers hadn't proved their case,[13] and it was subsequently dismissed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.[14][15] Elizabeth Whelan and her organization, the American Council on Science and Health (ACSH), which had received $25,000 from Alar's manufacturer,[16] stated that Alar and its breakdown product UDMH had not been shown to be carcinogenic.[17] During a 1990 speech at Hillsdale College, Whelan said that groups like the NRDC were ignoring a basic principle of toxicology: the dose makes the poison. "It is an egregious departure from science and logic when a substance is labeled 'cancer-causing' based on a response in a single animal study using high doses of a test material," she said.[18]Current viewsDisagreement and controversy remains about the safety of Alar and appropriateness of the response to it. Daminozide remains classified as a probable human carcinogen by the EPA and is listed as a known carcinogen under California's Prop 65.[16] The lab tests that prompted the scare required an amount of Alar equal to over 5,000 gallons (20,000 L) of apple juice per day.[19] Consumers Union ran its own studies and estimated that the human lifetime cancer risk was 5 cases per million, as compared to the previously-reported figure of 50 per million. Generally, EPA considers lifetime cancer risks in excess of 1 per million to be cause for action.[20] References1. ^{{cite web|url=http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/carbaryl-dicrotophos/daminozide-ext.html| publisher=Extension Toxicology Network |title=Daminozide toxicity, publication date: 9/93 |accessdate=10 September 2013}} 2. ^1 United States Environmental Protection Agency, "Daminozide (Alar) Pesticide Canceled for Food Uses" {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003173526/http://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/history/topics/food/02.html |date=October 3, 2012 }} (press release), 7 November 1989 3. ^{{cite journal|url=http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0032fact.pdf |title=R.E.D. Facts: Daminozide |author=United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides And Toxic Substances |id=EPA-738-F-93-007 |date=September 1993 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061006081728/http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0032fact.pdf |archivedate=2006-10-06 |df= }} 4. ^1 {{cite journal |last1=Montague |first1=Peter |title=How They Lie – Part 4: The True Story of Alar – Part 2 |journal=Rachel's Environment & Health News |date=January 29, 1997 |publisher=Environmental Research Foundation |url=http://www.rachel.org/files/rachel/Rachels_Environment_Health_News_592.pdf}} 5. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/30/opinion/a-silent-spring-for-kids.html?ref=naturalresourcesdefensecouncil | work=The New York Times | first1=John B. | last1=Oakes | title=A Silent Spring, for Kids | date=1989-03-30}} 6. ^Environmental Regulation: Law, Science, & Policy by Percival, et al. (4th ed.) p. 391. 7. ^{{cite news|last1=Gunset|first1=Geoprge|title=Apple Chemical Alar Off Market|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1989-06-03/news/8902060398_1_alar-international-apple-institute-apple-juice|accessdate=30 April 2017|work=Chicago Tribune|date=3 June 1989|quote=However, Uniroyal will continue to export Alar to about 70 countries, which means, critics said, that Americans still will face exposure from imported apple juice.}} 8. ^1 {{cite news|author1=|title=Apple growers sue over CBS Alar report|url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1990/11/29/page/51/article/apple-growers-sue-over-cbs-alar-report|accessdate=30 April 2017|work=Chicago Tribune|agency=Associated Press|date=29 November 1990}} 9. ^{{cite news|last1=Carlson|first1=Peter|title=The Image Makers|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/magazine/1990/02/11/the-image-makers/ccf6936e-4f50-4292-8224-fee6db3b582d/|accessdate=30 April 2017|work=The Washington Post|date=11 February 1990|quote=Fenton engineered a PR campaign that was the worst thing to happen to the apple since Eve.}} 10. ^{{cite news|last1=Puzo|first1=Daniel P.|title=Apple Growers to File Lawsuit in Alar Dispute|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1990-11-20/news/mn-5090_1_apple-growers |accessdate=30 April 2017|work=Los Angeles Times|date=20 November 1990|quote=Agriculture: Eleven farmers will seek $250 million from '60 Minutes' and an environmental group. They charge 'product disparagement.'}} 11. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/07/09/us/apple-growers-bruised-and-bitter-after-alar-scare.html?pagewanted=all | work=The New York Times | first1=Timothy | last1=Egan | title=Apple Growers Bruised and Bitter After Alar Scare |date=July 9, 1991}} 12. ^{{cite news|author1=|title=CBS Seeks to Move Alar Suit|url=http://lmtribune.com/northwest/cbs-seeks-to-move-alar-suit/article_a12e43e6-0dec-5e7a-be40-0c08f7f40081.html |accessdate=30 April 2017|work=Lewiston Morning Tribune|agency=Associated Press|date=4 January 1991|quote=Lawyers for the network and its affiliates said the issue involved freedom of speech and should be heard in federal court.}} 13. ^{{cite news|author1=|title=Apple Growers' Lawsuit Against Cbs Thrown Out |url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/1993-09-14/news/9309140117_1_apple-growers-alar-fruit |accessdate=30 April 2017|work=Orlando Sentinel|date=14 September 1993|quote=First Amendment law requires plaintiffs bringing such lawsuits to prove media reports were false.}} 14. ^{{cite web|title=Appellate Brief (1994) for CBS in Alar Case |work=Food Speak: Coalition for Free Speech |publisher=CSPI |url=http://www.cspinet.org/foodspeak/laws/cbsbrief.htm |accessdate=April 4, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615222457/http://cspinet.org/foodspeak/laws/cbsbrief.htm |archivedate=June 15, 2010 |df= }} 15. ^{{cite news|last1=Bernard|first1=Mitchell S.|title=The Natural Resources Defense Council was right on Alar in 1989 and it still is|url=http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/the-natural-resources-defense-council-was-right-on-alar-in-1989-and-it-still-is/article/2530942 |accessdate=30 April 2017|work=The Washington Examiner|date=2 June 2013|quote=Mitchell S. Bernard is litigation director for the Natural Resources Defense Council.}} 16. ^1 {{cite journal |vauthors=Neff RA, Goldman LR |title=Regulatory parallels to Daubert: stakeholder influence, "sound science," and the delayed adoption of health-protective standards |journal=Am J Public Health |volume=95 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S81–91 |year=2005 |pmid=16030344 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2004.044818 |url=http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/full/95/S1/S81}} 17. ^{{cite web|last1=Kroll|first1=Andy|last2=Schulman|first2=Jeremy|title=Leaked Documents Reveal the Secret Finances of a Pro-Industry Science Group|url=https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2013/10/american-council-science-health-leaked-documents-fundraising|website=Mother Jones|publisher=Foundation for National Progress|accessdate=30 April 2017|date=28 October 2013|quote=Initially, ACSH disclosed its donors, and it was obvious that the group embraced numerous causes connected to its funders. ACSH defended the chemical Alar, used to regulate the growth of apples – and accepted donations from Uniroyal, which manufactured and sold Alar.}} 18. ^{{cite journal|last1=Whelen|first1=Elizabeth|title=Cancer Scares And Our Inverted Health Priorities|journal=Imprimis|date=June 1991|volume=20|issue=6|accessdate=}} 19. ^{{cite journal | last=Smith |first=Kenneth |last2=Raso |first2=Jack |title= An Unhappy Anniversary: The Alar 'Scare' Ten Years Later |journal=American Council on Science and Health | date=Feb 1, 1999 |url= http://acsh.org/news/1999/02/01/an-unhappy-anniversary-the-alar-scare-ten-years-later |accessdate=5 October 2016}} 20. ^{{cite web|last=Sadowitz |first=March |last2=Graham |first2=John |title=A Survey of Residual Cancer Risks Permitted by Health, Safety and Environmental Policy |url=http://ipmall.info/risk/vol6/winter/sadowitz.htm |accessdate=Aug 24, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328233830/http://ipmall.info/risk/vol6/winter/sadowitz.htm |archivedate=2013-03-28 |df= }} External links
3 : Hydrazides|1963 introductions|Plant growth regulators |
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