“Mongolian script”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The classical or traditional Mongolian script,{{efn|In Mongolian script:{{angbr| }} {{lang|mn-Latn|Mongγol bičig}}; in Mongolian Cyrillic: {{lang|khk-Cyrl|Монгол бичиг}} {{lang|khk-Latn|Mongol bichig}}}} also known as Hudum Mongol bichig, was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946. Derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet,^[1] Mongolian is a true alphabet, with separate letters for consonants and vowels. The Mongolian script has been adapted to write languages such as Oirat and Manchu. Alphabets based on this classical vertical script are used in Inner Mongolia and other parts of China to this day to write Mongolian, Xibe and experimentally, Evenki.

Computer operating systems have been slow to adopt support for the Mongolian script, and almost all have incomplete support or other text rendering difficulties.

History

The Mongolian vertical script developed as an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet for the Mongolian language.^[2]{{rp|545}} From the seventh and eighth to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Mongolian language separated into southern, eastern and western dialects. The principal documents of the middle period are: in the eastern dialect, the famous text The Secret History of the Mongols, monuments in the Square script, materials of the {{ill|Chinese–Mongolian glossary of the fourteenth century|zh|华夷译语}}, and materials of the Mongolian language of the middle period in Chinese transcription, etc.; in the western dialect, materials of the Arab–Mongolian and Persian–Mongolian dictionaries, Mongolian texts in Arabic transcription, etc. The main features of the period are that the vowels ï and i had lost their phonemic significance, creating the i phoneme (in the Chakhar dialect, the Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, they're still distinct); inter-vocal consonants γ/g, b/w had disappeared and the preliminary process of the formation of Mongolian long vowels had begun; the initial h was preserved in many words; grammatical categories were partially absent, etc. The development over this period explains why the Mongolian script looks like a vertical Arabic script (in particular the presence of the dot system).^[3]{{rp|1–2}}

Eventually, minor concessions were made to the differences between the Uyghur and Mongol languages: In the 17th and 18th centuries, smoother and more angular versions of the letter tsadi became associated with {{IPA|[dʒ]}} and {{IPA|[tʃ]}} respectively, and in the 19th century, the Manchu hooked yodh was adopted for initial {{IPA|[j]}}. Zain was dropped as it was redundant for {{IPA|[s]}}. Various schools of orthography, some using diacritics, were developed to avoid ambiguity.^[2]{{rp|545}}

Mongolian is written vertically. The Uyghur script and its descendants — Mongolian, Oirat Clear, Manchu, and Buryat — are the only vertical scripts written from left to right. This developed because the Uyghurs rotated their Sogdian-derived script, originally written right to left, 90 degrees counterclockwise to emulate Chinese writing, but without changing the relative orientation of the letters.^[2] The reed pen was the writing instrument of choice until the 18th century, when the brush took its place under Chinese influence.^[3]{{rp|422}}

Mongols learned their script as a syllabary, dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on the final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels.^[4]

Name

The Traditional Mongolian script is known by a wide variety of names. Due to its shape like Uighur script, it became known as the Uighurjin Mongol script.{{efn|{{lang-mn|Уйгуржин монгол бичиг}}}} During the communist era, when Cyrillic became the official script for the Mongolian language, the traditional script became known as the Old Mongol script,{{efn|{{lang-mn|Хуучин монгол бичиг}}}} in contrast to the New script,{{efn|{{lang-mn|Шинэ үсэг}}}} referring to Cyrillic. The name Old Mongol script stuck, and it is still known as such among the older generation, who didn't receive education in the new script.

Letters

The traditional or classical Mongolian alphabet, sometimes called Hudum 'traditional' in Oirat in contrast to the Clear script (Todo 'exact'), is the original form of the Mongolian script used to write the Mongolian language. It does not distinguish several vowels ({{lang|mn-Latn|o}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|u}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|ö}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|ü}}, final {{lang|mn-Latn|a}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|e}}) and consonants (syllable-initial {{lang|mn-Latn|t}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|d}} and {{lang|mn-Latn|k}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|g}}, sometimes {{lang|mn-Latn|ǰ}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|y}}) that were not required for Uyghur, which was the source of the Mongol (or Uyghur-Mongol) script.^[2] The result is somewhat comparable to the situation of English, which must represent ten or more vowels with only five letters and uses the digraph th for two distinct sounds. Ambiguity is sometimes prevented by context, as the requirements of vowel harmony and syllable sequence usually indicate the correct sound. Moreover, as there are few words with an exactly identical spelling, actual ambiguities are rare for a reader who knows the orthography.

Letters have different forms depending on their position in a word: initial, medial, or final. In some cases, additional graphic variants are selected for visual harmony with the subsequent character.

The below rules for writing apply specifically for the Mongolian language, unless stated otherwise.

Sort orders

Handwriting

Final letterforms with a right-pointing tail ({{lang|mn-Latn|a}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|e}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|n}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|q}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|ү}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|m}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|l}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|s}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|š}}, and {{lang|mn-Latn|d}}) may have the notch (or tooth) preceding it in printed form, handwritten in a span between more or less tapered to a fully rounded curve.^[7]{{rp|62–63}}^[6]^[8]{{rp|211–215}}

For a visual comparison of how letterforms may differ between styles see § Comparison of writing styles.

Vowel harmony

Mongolian vowel harmony separates the vowels of words into three groups – two mutually exclusive and one neutral:

Any Mongolian word can contain the neutral vowel {{lang|mn-Latn|i}}, but only vowels from either of the other two groups. The vowel quality of visually separated vowels and suffixes are likewise affected by those of the preceding word stem. Such suffixes are written with front or neutral vowels when preceded by a word stem containing only neutal vowels. Any of these rules might not apply for foreign words however.^[3]{{rp|11, 39}}^[11]{{rp|10}}{{refn|name=Bilig2011|{{cite web|url=http://w.colips.org/journals/volume21/21.1.3-Biligsaikhan.pdf|title=A Study of Traditional Mongolian Script Encodings and Rendering: Use of Unicode in OpenType fonts|last=|first=|date=|website=w.colips.org|publisher=|format=PDF|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=9 November 2017}}}}{{rp|4}}^[6]

Separated final vowels

A separated final form of vowels {{lang|mn-Latn|a}} or {{lang|mn-Latn|e}} is common, and can appear at the end of a word, word stem, or suffix. This form requires a final-shaped preceding consonant and an inter-word gap in between. The vowels themselves appear as {{MongolUnicode|{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|}}}},

and with consonants as {{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠬ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode| |valign=middle}}}}}} {{lang|mn-Latn|q{{nbh}}a}}, {{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠷ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode| |valign=middle}}}}}} {{lang|mn-Latn|r{{nbh}}a}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|r{{nbh}}e}}, etc.{{sup|{{gray|(?)}}}} This gap can be transliterated with a hyphen . In digital typesetting, these forms are triggered by inserting a {{unichar|180E|MONGOLIAN VOWEL SEPARATOR|html=|note=MVS}} between the consonant and vowel. The combination of MVS and vowel is highlighted in light blue {{nowrap|({{MongolUnicode|{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle; background-color:PowderBlue}}){{sup|{{gray|(?)}}}}}} in the tables below.^[12]{{rp|30, 77}}^[13]{{rp|42}}^[14]{{rp|104}}{{rp|27}}^[15]{{rp|534–535}}

The presence or lack of a separated {{lang|mn-Latn|a}} or {{lang|mn-Latn|e}} can also indicate differences in meaning between different words (compare {{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠠᠷ{{mvs}}ᠠ|h|lang=mn|valign=middle}}{{sup|{{gray|(?)}}}} {{lang|mn-Latn|qar{{nbh}}a}} 'black' with {{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠠᠷᠠ|h|lang=mn|valign=middle}} {{lang|mn-Latn|qara}} 'to look').^[16]{{rp|3}}^[15]{{rp|535}}

Its form could be confused with that of the identically shaped traditional dative-locative suffix {{lang|mn-Latn|{{nbh}}a}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|{{nbh}}e}} exemplified further down. That form however, is more commonly found in older texts, and more commonly takes the forms of {{nowrap|{{angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠲ{{fvs1}}ᠤᠷ|h}}}}}} {{lang|mn-Latn|tur}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|tür}} or {{nowrap|{{angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠳ{{fvs1}}ᠤᠷ|h}}}}}} {{lang|mn-Latn|dur}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|dür}} instead.^[11]{{rp|15}}^[17]

Separated suffixes

Many suffixes (case and plural suffixes in particular) are likewise separated by a preceding and hyphen-transliterated gap. In digital typesetting, this gap is represented by a {{unichar|202f|NARROW NO-BREAK SPACE|html=|note=NNBSP}}. The combination of NNBSP and its following glyph is highlighted in light blue in the tables below (as in suffix-initial {{MongolUnicode|{{nnbsp}}ᠨ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|valign=middle; background-color:PowderBlue}} {{lang|mn-Latn|{{nbh}}n}}).^[12]{{rp|30}}^[11]{{rp|12}}^[17]{{refn|name=Suffixes|{{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17036-mongolian-suffix.pdf|title=PROPOSAL Encode Mongolian Suffix Connector (U+180F) To Replace Narrow Non-Breaking Space (U+202F)|last=|first=|date=|website=Unicode.org|publisher=|format=PDF|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=23 August 2017}}}}{{rp|28}}^[15]{{rp|534}}

Single-letter suffixes appear as final-formed {{lang|mn-Latn|a}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|e}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|i}}, or {{lang|mn-Latn|u}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|ü}} (as in {{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ{{nnbsp}}ᠠ|h|lang=mn|valign=middle}} {{lang|mn-Latn|γaǰar{{nbh}}a}} 'to the country' and {{MongolUnicode|ᠡᠳᠦᠷ{{nnbsp}}ᠡ|h|lang=mn|valign=middle}} {{lang|mn-Latn|edür{{nbh}}e}} 'on the day',^[12]{{rp|39}} or {{MongolUnicode|ᠤᠯᠤᠰ{{nnbsp}}ᠢ|h|lang=mn|valign=middle}} {{lang|mn-Latn|ulus{{nbh}}i}} 'the state' etc).{{sup|{{gray|(?)}}}}^[12]{{rp|23}} Multi-letter suffixes can start with an initial-, medial-, or variant-shaped glyph (medial/variant-shaped {{lang|mn-Latn|u}} in the two-letter suffix {{nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{nnbsp}}ᠤᠨ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}{{sup|{{gray|(?)}}}}}} {{nowrap|{{angbr|}}}} {{lang|mn-Latn|{{nbh}}un}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|{{nbh}}ün}} being exemplified in the adjacent newspaper logo).^[15]{{rp|27}}

Isolate citation forms

Isolate citation forms for syllables containing {{lang|mn-Latn|o}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|u}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|ö}}, and {{lang|mn-Latn|ü}} may in dictionaries appear without a final tail as in {{nowrap|{{angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠣ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}}}}} {{lang|mn-Latn|bo}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|bu}} or {{nowrap|{{angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣ{{fvs1}}|lang=mn|valign=middle}}}}}} {{lang|mn-Latn|mo}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|mu}}, and with a vertical tail as in {{nowrap|{{angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠥ{{fvs1}}|lang=mn|valign=middle}}}}}} {{lang|mn-Latn|bö}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|bü}} or {{nowrap|{{angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠥ{{fvs1}}|lang=mn|valign=middle}}}}}} {{lang|mn-Latn|mö}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|mü}} (as well as in transcriptions of Chinese syllables).^[6]^[14]{{rp|105}}

Notes on letter tables

A dash indicates a non-applicable position for that letter.^[12]{{rp|15}}^[11]{{rp|60}}^[14]{{rp|101, 104}}^[16]{{rp|2–3}}^[18]{{rp|3–4}}^[19]{{rp|27, 30}}^[6]

Parentheses enclose glyphs or positions whose corresponding sounds are not found in native Mongolian words.^[12]{{rp|14–15}}^[11]{{rp|9–10}}^[14]{{rp|101}}^[16]{{rp|3–5}}^[19]{{rp|27}}

Palatalized phonemes have been excluded. These are conditioned by a following i.^[13]{{rp|178}}

Vowels

U+1820 {{MongolUnicode|ᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} A

U+1821 {{MongolUnicode|ᠡ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} E

U+1822 {{MongolUnicode|ᠢ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} I

U+1823 {{MongolUnicode|ᠣ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} O

U+1824 {{MongolUnicode|ᠤ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} U

U+1825 {{MongolUnicode|ᠥ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} OE

U+1826 {{MongolUnicode|ᠦ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} UE

U+1827 {{MongolUnicode|ᠧ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} EE

Consonants

U+1828 {{MongolUnicode|ᠨ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} NA

U+1829 {{MongolUnicode|ᠩ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} ANG

U+182A {{MongolUnicode|ᠪ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} BA

U+182B {{MongolUnicode|ᠫ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} PA

U+182C {{MongolUnicode|ᠬ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} QA (1/2)

U+182C {{MongolUnicode|ᠬ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} QA (2/2)

U+182D {{MongolUnicode|ᠭ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} GA (1/2)

U+182D {{MongolUnicode|ᠭ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} GA (2/2)

U+182E {{MongolUnicode|ᠮ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} MA

U+182F {{MongolUnicode|ᠯ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} LA

U+1830 {{MongolUnicode|ᠰ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} SA

U+1831 {{MongolUnicode|ᠱ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} SHA

U+1832 {{MongolUnicode|ᠲ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} TA

U+1833 {{MongolUnicode|ᠳ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} DA

U+1834 {{MongolUnicode|ᠴ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} CHA

U+1835 {{MongolUnicode|ᠵ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} JA

U+1836 {{MongolUnicode|ᠶ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} YA

U+1837 {{MongolUnicode|ᠷ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} RA

Consonants for foreign words

U+1838 {{MongolUnicode|ᠸ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} WA

U+1839 {{MongolUnicode|ᠹ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} FA

U+183A {{MongolUnicode|ᠺ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} KA

U+183B {{MongolUnicode|ᠻ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} KHA

U+183C {{MongolUnicode|ᠼ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} TSA

U+183D {{MongolUnicode|ᠽ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} ZA

U+183E {{MongolUnicode|ᠾ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} HAA

U+183F {{MongolUnicode|ᠿ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} ZRA

U+1840 {{MongolUnicode|ᡀ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} LHA

U+1841 {{MongolUnicode|ᡁ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} ZHI

U+1842 {{MongolUnicode|ᡂ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} CHI

Punctuation

Numerals

Examples

Comparison of writing styles

Gallery

Child systems

The Mongol script has been the basis of alphabets for several languages. First, after overcoming the Uyghur script ductus, it was used for Mongolian itself.

Clear script (Oirat alphabet)

In 1648, the Oirat Buddhist monk Zaya-pandita Namkhaijamco created this variation with the goals of bringing the written language closer to the actual pronunciation of Oirat and making it easier to transcribe Tibetan and Sanskrit. The script was used by the Kalmyks of Russia until 1924, when it was replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet. In Xinjiang, China, the Oirat people still use it.

Manchu alphabet

The Manchu alphabet was developed from the Mongolian script in the early 17th century to write the Manchu language. A variant is still used to write Xibe. It is also used for Daur. Its folded variant may for example be found on Chinese Qing seals.

Vagindra alphabet

Another alphabet, sometimes called Vagindra or Vaghintara, was created in 1905 by the Buryat monk Agvan Dorjiev (1854–1938). It was also meant to reduce ambiguity, and to support the Russian language in addition to Mongolian. The most significant change, however, was the elimination of the positional shape variations. All letters were based on the medial variant of the original Mongol alphabet. Fewer than a dozen books were printed using it.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

Evenki alphabet

The Qing dynasty Qianlong Emperor erroneously identified the Khitan people and their language with the Solons, leading him to use the Solon language (Evenki) to "correct" Chinese character transcriptions of Khitan names in the History of Liao in his "Imperial Liao Jin Yuan Three Histories National Language Explanation" (欽定遼金元三史國語解/钦定辽金元三史国语解 Qīndìng Liáo Jīn Yuán Sānshǐ Guóyǔjiě) project. The Evenki words were written in the Manchu script in this work.

Additional characters

Galik characters

In 1587, the translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh ({{lang|mn-Cyrl|Аюуш гүүш}}) created the Galik alphabet ({{lang|mn-Cyrl|Али-гали}}), inspired by the third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso. It primarily added extra characters for transcribing Tibetan and Sanskrit terms when translating religious texts, and later also from Chinese. Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (compare table above).^[36]

Unicode

Mongolian script was added to the Unicode Standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0.

Blocks

The Unicode block for Mongolian is U+1800–U+18AF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks for Hudum Mongolian, Todo Mongolian, Xibe (Manchu), Manchu proper, and Ali Gali, as well as extensions for transcribing Sanskrit and Tibetan.

The Mongolian Supplement block (U+11660–U+1167F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June, 2016 with the release of version 9.0:

Font issues

Although the Mongolian script has been defined in Unicode since 1999, there was no native support for Unicode Mongolian from the major vendors until the release of the Windows Vista operating system in 2007 and fonts need to be installed in Windows XP and Windows 2000 to show properly, and so Unicode Mongolian is not yet widely used. In China, legacy encodings such as the Private Use Areas (PUA) Unicode mappings and GB18030 mappings of the Menksoft IMEs (espc. Menksoft Mongolian IME) are more commonly used than Unicode for writing web pages and electronic documents in Mongolian.

The inclusion of a Unicode Mongolian font and keyboard layout in Windows Vista has meant that Unicode Mongolian is now gradually becoming more popular,{{Citation needed|date=July 2015}} but the complexity of the Unicode Mongolian encoding model and the lack of a clear definition for the use variation selectors are still barriers to its widespread adoption, as is the lack of support for inline vertical display. As of 2015 there are no fonts that successfully display all of Mongolian correctly when written in Unicode. A report published in 2011 revealed many shortcomings with automatic rendering in all three Unicode Mongolian fonts the authors surveyed, including Microsoft's Mongolian Baiti.^[37]

Furthermore, Mongolian language support has suffered from buggy implementations: the initial version of Microsoft's Mongolian Baiti font (version 5.00) was, in the supplier's own words, "almost unusable",^[38] and as of 2011 there remain some minor bugs with the rendering of suffixes in Firefox.^[39] Other fonts, such as Monotype's Mongol Usug and Myatav Erdenechimeg's MongolianScript, suffer even more serious bugs.^[37]

In January 2013, Menksoft released several OpenType Mongolian fonts, delivered with its Menksoft Mongolian IME 2012. These fonts strictly follow Unicode standard, i.e. bichig is no longer realized as "B+I+CH+I+G+FVS2" (incorrect) but "B+I+CH+I+G" (correct), which is not done by Microsoft and Founder's Mongolian Baiti, Monotype's Mongol Usug, or Myatav Erdenechimeg's MongolianScript.^[40] However, due to the impact of Mongolian Baiti, many still use the Microsoft defined incorrect realization "B+I+CH+I+G+FVS2", which results in an incorrect rendering in correctly-designed fonts like Menk Qagan Tig.

Sometimes even if a font is installed the script may display as horizontal rather then vertical depending on the operating system or font

Sample

In text sample below, the appearance of the scripts should match. The more specific shapes include the final shapes on lines 1 ({{lang|mn-Latn|yin}} suffix), 3 (separated {{lang|mn-Latn|a}}), and 4/6 (vowel harmony dependent {{lang|mn-Latn|g}}) in the middle column, and the interrogative particle {{lang|mn-Latn|uu}}/{{lang|mn-Latn|üü}} in the rightmost column. Note that in some browsers, letters are rotated 90° counterclockwise. If the isolate letter a ({{MongolUnicode|ᠠ|valign=middle|lang=mn}}) resembles a 'W' and not a 'Σ', rotate the letters 90° clockwise.

See also

Notes

References

1. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DGQoeGxtjKsC&lpg=PA94&dq=mongolian%20script%20loanwords&pg=PA94#v=onepage&q=mongolian%20script%20loanwords&f=false|title=Handbook of Scripts and Alphabets|last=Campbell|first=George L.|date=1997|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-18344-4|language=en}}
2. ^¹György Kara, "Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages", in Daniels & Bright The World's Writing Systems, 1994.
3. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZhGza8C77kC&lpg=PA1&pg=PT419#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and Beyond|last=Shepherd|first=Margaret|date=2013-07-03|publisher=Potter/Ten Speed/Harmony/Rodale|isbn=978-0-8230-8230-8|language=en}}
4. ^Chinggeltei. (1963) A Grammar of the Mongol Language. New York, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. p. 15.
5. ^¹{{Cite web|url=http://ftp.tc.edu.tw/pub/docs/Unicode/ftp.unicode.org/TEXT/UTR-2.TXT|title=Unicode Technical Report #2|website=ftp.tc.edu.tw|access-date=2017-12-13}}
6. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰²¹²²²³²⁴²⁵²⁶²⁷²⁸²⁹³⁰³¹³²³³³⁴³⁵³⁶³⁷³⁸³⁹⁴⁰⁴¹⁴²⁴³⁴⁴⁴⁵⁴⁶⁴⁷⁴⁸⁴⁹⁵⁰⁵¹{{Cite web|url=http://cjvlang.com/Writing/writmongol/index.html|title=Mongolian Traditional Script|website=cjvlang.com|access-date=2017-12-07}}
7. ^{{Cite book|url=http://altaica.ru/manuals/skorodumova_staromong.pdf|title=Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык: учебное пособие|last=Скородумова|first=Лидия Григорьевна|date=2000|publisher=Изд-во Дом "Муравей-Гайд"|isbn=9785846300156|language=ru}}
8. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbhgCgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA211#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Colloquial Mongolian: The Complete Course for Beginners|last=Bat-Ireedui|first=Jantsangiyn|last2=Sanders|first2=Alan J. K.|date=2015-08-14|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-30598-9|language=en}}
9. ^¹by Manchu convention
10. ^¹in Inner Mongolia.
11. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰²¹²²²³²⁴²⁵²⁶²⁷²⁸²⁹³⁰³¹³²³³³⁴³⁵³⁶³⁷³⁸³⁹{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YanEBJXGRMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=An Introduction to Classical (literary) Mongolian: Introduction, Grammar, Reader, Glossary|last=Grønbech|first=Kaare|last2=Krueger|first2=John Richard|date=1993|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03298-8|language=en}}
12. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰²¹²²²³²⁴²⁵²⁶²⁷²⁸²⁹³⁰³¹³²³³³⁴³⁵³⁶³⁷³⁸³⁹⁴⁰⁴¹⁴²⁴³⁴⁴⁴⁵⁴⁶⁴⁷⁴⁸⁴⁹⁵⁰⁵¹⁵²⁵³⁵⁴⁵⁵⁵⁶⁵⁷⁵⁸⁵⁹⁶⁰⁶¹{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVKR3Da2B7MC&printsec=frontcover|title=Grammar of Written Mongolian|last=Poppe|first=Nicholas|date=1974|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-00684-2|language=en}}
13. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹{{Cite book|title=The Phonology of Mongolian|last=Svantesson|first=Jan-Olof|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=0-19-926017-6|location=https://media.turuz.com/Language/2012/0122-(5)moghol_(monqol)_dilinin_ses_bilimi-fonoloji(18.163KB).pdf#page=61|pages=40–42}}
14. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰²¹²²²³²⁴²⁵²⁶²⁷²⁸²⁹³⁰³¹³²³³³⁴³⁵³⁶³⁷³⁸³⁹⁴⁰⁴¹⁴²⁴³⁴⁴⁴⁵⁴⁶⁴⁷⁴⁸⁴⁹⁵⁰⁵¹⁵²⁵³⁵⁴⁵⁵⁵⁶⁵⁷⁵⁸⁵⁹⁶⁰{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMWRAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover|title=The Mongolic Languages|last=Janhunen|first=Juha|date=2006-01-27|publisher=Routledge|year=|isbn=978-1-135-79689-1|location=|pages=|language=en}}
15. ^¹²³⁴{{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode10.0.0/ch13.pdf|title=The Unicode® Standard Version 10.0 – Core Specification: South and Central Asia-II|last=|first=|date=|website=Unicode.org|publisher=|format=PDF|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=3 December 2017}}
16. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{Cite web|url=https://www.eki.ee/knab/lat/kblcmg2.pdf|title=Mongolian / ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ Moŋġol|website=www.eki.ee|access-date=2017-11-18}}
17. ^¹²³{{Cite web|url=http://www.linguamongolia.com/gram1.html|title=Lingua Mongolia – Mongolian Grammar|last=http://andreasviklund.com/|first=Original design: Andreas Viklund -|website=www.linguamongolia.com|language=en|access-date=2017-12-13}}
18. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.linguamongolia.com/The%20Mongolian%20Script.pdf|title=The Mongolian Script|last=|first=|date=|website=Lingua Mongolia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}
19. ^¹²³{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAlwcg9ioPMC&printsec=frontcover|title=Mongolian|last=Janhunen|first=Juha A.|date=2012|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=9027238200|language=en}}
20. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸{{Cite web|url=https://transliteration.eki.ee/pdf/Mongolian.pdf|title=Mongolian transliterations|last=|first=|date=|website=Institute of the Estonian Language|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}
21. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰²¹²²²³²⁴²⁵²⁶²⁷²⁸²⁹³⁰³¹³²³³³⁴³⁵{{Cite web|url=http://www.studymongolian.net/lessons/basics/writing/|title=Writing | Study Mongolian|website=www.studymongolian.net|language=en-US|access-date=2017-12-14}}
22. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰²¹²²²³²⁴²⁵²⁶²⁷²⁸²⁹³⁰³¹³²³³³⁴³⁵{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA545&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The World's Writing Systems|last=Daniels|first=Peter T.|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507993-7|language=en}}
23. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰²¹²²²³²⁴²⁵²⁶²⁷²⁸{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O-BAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Studies in Turkic and Mongolic Linguistics|last=Clauson|first=Gerard|date=2005-11-04|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-43012-3|language=en}}
24. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228946629_Retrieval_in_Texts_with_Traditional_Mongolian_Script_Realizing_Unicoded_Traditional_Mongolian_Digital_Library|title=Retrieval in Texts with Traditional Mongolian Script Realizing Unicoded Traditional Mongolian Digital Library (PDF Download Available)|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2017-12-01}}
25. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RE_8dmVH2dsC&lpg=PA346&ots=nmAIaO6ym4&dq=mongolian%20diphtongs%20aleph&pg=PA346#v=onepage&q=mongolian%20diphtongs%20aleph&f=false|title=Divine Knowledge: Buddhist Mathematics According to the Anonymous Manual of Mongolian Astrology and Divination|last=Baumann|first=Brian Gregory|date=2008|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004155759|language=en}}
26. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰{{Cite web|url=http://babelstone.co.uk/Mongolian/Resources.html|title=BabelStone : Mongolian and Manchu Resources|website=babelstone.co.uk|language=en|access-date=2017-08-17}}
27. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰{{Cite web|url=https://mongoltoli.mn/dictionary/|title=Mongolian State Dictionary|last=|first=|date=|website=mongoltoli.mn|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2017-12-14}}
28. ^Inner Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party emblem
29. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{Cite web|url=http://turfan.bbaw.de/dta/monght/dta_monght_index.htm|title=Digitales Turfanarchiv|website=turfan.bbaw.de|access-date=2017-12-18}}
30. ^¹Arghun Letter To Philippe Le Bel, in Mongolian language and script, Extract, 1289 ink on parchment 185 × 25 cm (72.8 × 9.8 in)
31. ^¹Letter from Arghun, Khan of the Mongol Ilkhanate, to Pope Nicholas IV, 1290.
32. ^Letter from Oljeitu to Philippe le Bel, 1305.
33. ^{{citation | last=Lee-Kim | first=Sang-Im | year=2014 | title=Revisiting Mandarin ‘apical vowels’: An articulatory and acoustic study | journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume= | issue=3 | pages=261–282 |url= https://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9438760|bibcode = | doi=10.1017/s0025100314000267}}
34. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.mongolfont.com/mn/computer/input.html|title=ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ᠌ ᠦᠨ ᠣᠷᠤᠭᠤᠯᠬᠤ ᠠᠷᠭ᠎ᠠ - ᠮᠤᠩᠭ᠋ᠤᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ᠌|website=www.mongolfont.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-12-15}}
35. ^{{Cite journal|author= Shagdarsürüng, Tseveliin |title="Study of Mongolian Scripts (Graphic Study or Grammatology). Enl."|journal= Bibliotheca Mongolica: Monograph 1|year= 2001}}
36. ^{{Cite book|author = Otgonbayar Chuluunbaatar|title = Einführung in die Mongolischen Schriften|language = German|publisher = Buske|year = 2008|isbn = 978-3-87548-500-4}}
37. ^¹{{cite journal|author=Biligsaikhan Batjargal|title=A Study of Traditional Mongolian Script Encodings and Rendering: Use of Unicode in OpenType fonts|journal=International Journal of Asian Language Processing|year=2011|volume=21|issue=1|pages=23–43|url=http://www.colips.org/journals/volume21/21.1.3-Biligsaikhan.pdf|accessdate=2011-09-10|display-authors=etal}}
38. ^Version 5.00 of the Mongolian Baiti font may be displayed incorrectly in Windows Vista
39. ^[https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=490534 Bug 490534 – ZWJ and NNBSP rendered incorrectly in scripts like Mongolian]
40. ^Menk Qagan Tig, Menk Hawang Tig, Menk Garqag Tig, Menk Har_a Tig, and Menk Scnin Tig.
41. ^{{Cite web |url=https://ctan.org/pkg/montex |title=CTAN: Package montex |website=ctan.org |access-date=2018-01-21}}