| 词条 | Muselmann |
| 释义 |
Some scholars argue that the term possibly comes from the Muselmann's inability to stand for any time due to the loss of leg muscle, thus spending much of the time in a prone position, recalling the position of the Musulman (Muslim) during prayers.[3] It has also been suggested by Giorgio Agamben that the term hails from the Islamic fatalism which characterizes Sunnite orthodoxy, i.e. the idea that there are no such things as causality but that God performs every occurrence in the world, meaning that everything including men simply undergoes the workings of God and does not act on its own. Muselmann would then be the darkest interpretation of this fatalism. Usage of the term in literatureThe American psychologist David P. Boder assisted in identifying the term musselman when in 1946 he conducted interviews with camp survivors in Europe. He asked them to describe, spell and pronounce the word for camp inmates so emaciated that they had lost the will to live.[4][5] Primo Levi tried to explain the term (he also uses Musselman), in a footnote of If This Is a Man, his autobiographical account of his time in Auschwitz:[6]{{Quote|text=This word ‘Muselmann’, I do not know why, was used by the old ones of the camp to describe the weak, the inept, those doomed to selection.|sign=Primo Levi|source=If This Is a Man, chapter "The Drowned and the Saved".}}The psychologist and Auschwitz survivor Viktor Frankl, in his book Man's Search for Meaning, provides the example of a prisoner who decides to use up his last cigarettes (used as currency in the concentration camps) in the evening because he is convinced he won't survive the Appell (roll call assembly) the next morning; his fellow captives derided him as a Muselmann. Frankl compares this to the dehumanized behavior and attitudes of the kapos.[7] Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben defined his key examples of 'bare life', the Muselmann and the patient in an overcoma, in relation to their passivity and inertia. The Muselmann was for him "a being from whom humiliation, horror and fear had so taken away all consciousness and personality as to make him absolutely apathetic", "[m]ute and absolutely alone ... without memory and without grief."[8] The testimonial of the Polish witness, Adolf Gawalewicz, Refleksje z poczekalni do gazu: ze wspomnień muzułmana ("Reflections in the Gas Chamber's Waiting Room: From the Memoirs of a Muselmann"), published in 1968, incorporates the term in the title of the work.[9] Canadian Jewish author Eli Pfefferkorn published a novel in 2011 with title The Müselmann at the Water Cooler.[10] Origin and alternative slang termsThe term spread from Auschwitz-Birkenau to other concentration camps. Its equivalent in the Majdanek concentration camp was Gamel (derived from German gammeln - colloquial for "rotting") and in the Stutthof concentration camp, Krypel (derived from German Krüppel, "cripple"). When prisoners reached this emaciated condition, they were selected by camp doctors and murdered by gas, bullet or various other methods. CriticismCritics of the word Muselmann often proclaim that it is rooted in Islamophobia. {{Citation needed|date=March 2019}} The word Muselmann frequents texts which use the term in a demeaning manner. For example, in his book Man's Search for Meaning author Victor Frankl mentions the frequent use of the word "Musselman" in the concentration camps of the Nazi regime. In Man's Search for Meaning, Frankl berates the attitudes of those who fit his definition of the word Musselman by associating the word with those who are unable to fight the oppressive tactics utilized by the Nazis. Action 14f13{{main|Action 14f13}}Those prisoners considered Muselmänner and thus unable to work were also very likely to be labelled "excess ballast" inside the concentration camps.[11] In spring 1941 Heinrich Himmler expressed his desire to relieve concentration camps of sick prisoners and those no longer able to work.[12] Action T4, an "euthanasia" programme for mentally ill, disabled and other inmates of hospitals and nursing homes who were deemed{{by whom?|date=September 2017}} unworthy of life, was extended to include the weakest concentration-camp prisoners.[13][14] Himmler, together with Philipp Bouhler, transferred technology and techniques used in the Aktion T4 programme to the concentration camps, and later to Einsatzgruppen and death camps.[15][16]The first concentration-camp victims of this program were gassed by carbon monoxide poisoning and the first known Selektion took place in April 1941 at Sachsenhausen concentration camp. By the summer of 1941 at least 400 prisoners from Sachsenhausen had been "retired". The scheme operated under the Concentration Camps Inspector and the Reichsführer-SS under the name "Sonderbehandlung 14f13".[17] The combination of numbers and letters derived from the SS record-keeping system and consists of the number "14" for the Concentration Camps Inspector, the letter "f" for the German word "deaths" (Todesfälle) and the number "13" for the cause of death, in this case "special treatment", a bureaucratic euphemism for gassing.[18] See also
Further reading
References1. ^{{cite book|author=Danuta Czech|title=Auschwitz: Nazi Death Camp|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Je1mAAAAMAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum|isbn=978-83-85047-56-8}} {{Authority control}}2. ^Muselmann definition Johannes Kepler University of Linz, official website. Insitut für Sozial und Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Retrieved November 30, 2010 3. ^Muselmann definition (PDF) Yad Vashem, official website. Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies. Retrieved November 30, 2010 4. ^{{cite book |author=Ritchie, Donald A. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Oral History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gNkL6T8Zx4cC&pg=PA245 |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-533955-0 |pages=245 ff}} 5. ^{{cite book |author=Alan Rosen|title=The Wonder of Their Voices: The 1946 Holocaust Interviews of David Boder |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BvJ6UnmktUAC&pg=PA306|date=18 October 2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-978076-1 |pages=306 ff}} 6. ^1 {{cite book |author=Levi, Primo |title=If This Is a Man |chapter=The Truce |publisher=Abacus |year=1987 |ISBN=0349100136 |page=94}} 7. ^{{cite book |author=Frankl, Viktor E. |title=Man's Search for Meaning |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8SERAAAAQBAJ |date=1 June 2006 |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=978-0-8070-1428-8}} 8. ^{{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=Jane |title=Suffering Agency: Imagining neoliberal personhood in North America and Britain |journal=Social Text |date=Summer 2013 |issue=31 |page=86}} 9. ^{{cite book |author-link=Adolf Gawalewicz |first=Adolf |last=Gawalewicz |title=Refleksje z Poczekalni do Gazu: ze wspomnień muzułmana |location= Cracow |publisher=Wydawnictwo Literackie |year=1968 |page=165}} 10. ^{{cite book |last=Pfefferkorn |first=Eli |date=2011 |title=The Müselmann at the Water Cooler |url=https://www.amazon.ca/M%C3%BCselmann-at-Water-Cooler/dp/1936235668 |publisher=Academic Studies Press |isbn=978-1936235667}} 11. ^{{cite book|author= Robert P. Watson|title= The Nazi Titanic: The Incredible Untold Story of a Doomed Ship in World War II|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu7lCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT65|date= 26 April 2016|publisher= Da Capo Press|isbn= 978-0-306-82490-6|pages= 65–}} 12. ^{{cite book|author1= Stephen Goodell|author2= Sybil Milton|author3= United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|title= 1945: the year of liberation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yGsYAQAAMAAJ|year= 1995|publisher= U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum|isbn= 978-0-89604-700-6}} 13. ^{{cite book|author= S. Kühl|title= For the Betterment of the Race: The Rise and Fall of the International Movement for Eugenics and Racial Hygiene|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4T4hAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA126|date= 7 August 2013|publisher= Springer|isbn= 978-1-137-28612-3|pages= 126–}} 14. ^{{cite book|author= United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|title= The Holocaust and History: The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed, and the Reexamined|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zkZC6bp3upsC&pg=PA332|year= 2002|publisher= Indiana University Press|isbn= 0-253-21529-3|pages= 332–}} 15. ^{{cite book|author= David Nicholls|title= Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8L42KtTrw0C&pg=PA34|year= 2000|publisher= ABC-CLIO|isbn= 978-0-87436-965-6|pages= 34–}} 16. ^{{cite book|author= Henry Friedlander|title= The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xKjqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA142|date= 9 November 2000|publisher= Univ of North Carolina Press|isbn= 978-0-8078-6160-8|pages= 142–}} 17. ^{{cite book|author= Peter Hayes|authorlink=Peter Hayes (historian) |title= Why?: Explaining the Holocaust|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-Et8DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT86|date= 17 January 2017|publisher= W. W. Norton|isbn= 978-0-393-25437-2|pages= 86–}} 18. ^{{cite book|author1= Michael Burleigh|author2= Wolfgang Wippermann|title= The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DGJy5Ptzqp0C&pg=PA161|date= 7 November 1991|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-0-521-39802-2|pages= 161–}} 2 : Terminology of Nazi concentration camps|Malnutrition |
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