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词条 Digit ratio
释义

  1. History of research

  2. Distribution

  3. Evidence of androgen effect

  4. Explanation of the digit ratio effect

  5. Geographic and ethnic variation in 2D:4D

  6. Correlation with traits

     Male-to-female transgender women  Digit ratio and development 

  7. Palaeolithic hand stencils

  8. Other animals

  9. See also

  10. References

  11. External links

{{distinguish|text=Benford's law about the frequencies of leading digits of numbers}}{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}

The digit ratio is the ratio of the lengths of different digits or fingers typically measured from the midpoint of bottom crease (where the finger joins the hand) to the tip of the finger.[1] The ratio of two digits in particular, the 2nd (index finger) and 4th (ring finger), is affected by exposure to androgens, e.g., testosterone while in the uterus and that this 2D:4D ratio can be considered a crude measure for prenatal androgen exposure, with lower 2D:4D ratios pointing to higher prenatal androgen exposure.[2][3][4][3][6][4][5][6]

There are also studies that suggest that the 2D:4D ratio is also influenced by prenatal estrogen exposure, and that it thus correlates negatively not with prenatal testosterone alone, but rather with the prenatal testosterone to estrogen ratio (T:O).[7][1][8][9] The 2D:4D ratio is calculated by dividing the length of the index finger of a given hand by the length of the ring finger of the same hand. A longer index finger will result in a ratio higher than 1, while a longer ring finger will result in a ratio lower than 1.

The 2D:4D digit ratio is sexually dimorphic: although the second digit is typically shorter in both females and males, the difference between the lengths of the two digits is greater in males than in females.[10]

A number of studies have shown a correlation between the 2D:4D digit ratio and various physical and behavioral traits.[11]

History of research

That a greater proportion of men have shorter index fingers than ring fingers than do women was noted in the scientific literature several times through the late 1800s,[12] with the statistically significant sex difference in a sample of 201 men and 109 women established by 1930,[13] after which time the sex difference appears to have been largely forgotten or ignored. In 1983 Dr Glenn Wilson of King's College, London, published a study examining the correlation between assertiveness in women and their digit ratio.[14] This was the first study to examine the correlation between digit ratio and a psychological trait within members of the same sex.[15] Wilson proposed that skeletal structure and personality were simultaneously affected by sex hormone levels in utero.[14] In 1998, John T. Manning and colleagues reported the sex difference in digit ratios was present in two-year-old children[16] and further developed the idea that the index was a marker of prenatal sex hormones. Since then research on the topic has burgeoned around the world.

A 2009 study in Biology Letters argues: "Sexual differences in 2D:4D are mainly caused by the shift along the common allometric line with non-zero intercept, which means 2D:4D necessarily decreases with increasing finger length, and the fact that men have longer fingers than women,"[17] which may be the basis for the sex difference in digit ratios and/or any putative hormonal influence on the ratios.

A 2011 paper by Zhengui Zheng and Martin J. Cohn reports "the 2D:4D ratio in mice is controlled by the balance of androgen to estrogen signaling during a narrow window of digit development".[2]

The formation of the digits in humans, in utero, is thought to occur by 13 weeks, and the bone-to-bone ratio is consistent from this point into an individual's adulthood.[18] During this period if the fetus is exposed to androgens, the exact level of which is thought to be sexually dimorphic, the growth rate of the 4th digit is increased, as can be seen by analyzing the 2D:4D ratio of opposite sex dizygotic twins, where the female twin is exposed to excess androgens from her brother in utero, and thus has a significantly lower 2D:4D ratio.[19]

Importantly, there has been no correlation between the sex hormone levels of an adult and the individual's 2D:4D,[20] which implies that it is strictly the exposure in utero that causes this phenomenon.

A major problem with the research on this topic comes from the contradiction in the literature as to whether the testosterone level in adults can be predicted by the 2D:4D ratio.[20]

Distribution

From a study of 136 males and 137 females at the University of Alberta:[21]

  • Males: mean 0.947, standard deviation 0.029
  • Females: mean 0.965, standard deviation 0.026

Assuming a normal distribution, the above lead to 95% prediction intervals for 2D:4D ratio of 0.889–1.005 for males and 0.913–1.017 for females.

From a 2018 study on a final sample of 249 graduate and undergraduate students from Warwick University,[22] proportionally balanced by gender:

  • Males: mean 0.951, standard deviation 0.035
  • Females: mean 0.968, standard deviation 0.028

Evidence of androgen effect

Women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), which results in elevated androgen levels before birth, have lower, more masculinized 2D:4D on average.[23][24][25] Other possible physiological effects include an enlarged clitoris and shallow vagina.[26]

Males with CAH have more masculine (smaller) digit ratios than control males,[23][24] which also suggests that prenatal androgens affect digit ratios, since amniocentesis samples show that prenatal levels of testosterone are in the high normal range in males with CAH, while levels of the weaker androgen androstenedione are several fold higher than in control males.[27][28][29] These measures indicate that males with CAH are exposed to greater prenatal concentrations of total androgens than are control males.

A greater digit ratio occurs for men with Klinefelter's syndrome, who have reduced testosterone secretion throughout life compared to control males, than in their fathers or control males.[5]

In a non-clinical sample of women, digit ratio correlated with anogenital distance in the expected direction. In other words, women with a greater anogenital distance, indicating greater prenatal androgen exposure, had a smaller digit ratio.[30]

Digit ratio in men correlates with genetic variation in the androgen receptor gene.[31] Men with genes that produce androgen receptors that are less sensitive to testosterone (because they have more CAG repeats) have greater, more feminine, digit ratios. There are reports of a failure to replicate this finding.[32] However, men carrying an androgen receptor with more CAG repeats compensate for the less sensitive receptor by secreting more testosterone,[33] probably as a result of reduced negative feedback on gonadotropins. Thus, it is not clear that 2D:4D would be expected to correlate with CAG repeats, even if it accurately reflects prenatal androgen.

XY individuals with androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) due to a dysfunctional gene for the androgen receptor present as women and have feminine digit ratios on average, as would be predicted if androgenic hormones affect digit ratios. This finding also demonstrates that the sex difference in digit ratios is unrelated to the Y chromosome per se.[34]

The sex difference in 2D:4D is present before birth in humans.[8][35]

The ratio of testosterone to estradiol measured in 33 amniocentesis samples correlates with the child's subsequent 2D:4D ratio.[7]

In pheasants, the ratio of the 2nd to 4th digit of the foot has been shown to be influenced by manipulations of testosterone in the egg.[36]

Studies in mice indicate that prenatal androgen acts primarily by promoting growth of the fourth digit.[2]

There is evidence that this reflects fetal exposure to the hormone testosterone.[37]

Several studies present evidence that digit ratios are heritable.[38][39]

The level of estrogen in the amniotic fluid is not correlated with higher 2D:4D, and when examined researchers found no difference in estrogen levels between males and females.[7]

Explanation of the digit ratio effect

It is not clear why digit ratio is influenced by prenatal hormones. There is evidence of other similar traits, e.g. otoacoustic emissions and arm-to-trunk length ratio, which show similar effects. Hox genes responsible for both digit and penis development[40] have been implicated in affecting these multiple traits (pleiotropy). Direct effects of sex hormones on bone growth might be responsible, either by regulation of Hox genes in digit development or independently of such genes. Likewise, it is unclear why digit ratio on the right hand should be more responsive than that on the left hand, as is indicated by the greater sex difference on the right than the left.[41]

One study on mice from 2011 suggests that the 2D:4D ratio correlates with prenatal sex hormone levels because the androgen receptor and estrogen receptor activity is higher in digit 4 than in digit 2. Inactivation of AR decreases growth of digit 4, which causes a higher 2D:4D ratio, whereas inactivation of ER-α increases growth of digit 4, which leads to a lower 2D:4D ratio.[2]

Geographic and ethnic variation in 2D:4D

Manning and colleagues have shown that 2D:4D ratios vary greatly between different ethnic groups. In a study with Han, Berber, Uygur and Jamaican children as subjects, Manning et al. found that Han children had the highest mean values of 2D:4D (0.954±−0.032), they were followed by the Berbers (0.950±0.033), then the Uygurs (0.946±0.037), and the Jamaican children had the lowest mean 2D:4D (0.935±0.035).[42][43] This variation is far larger than the differences between sexes; in Manning's words, "There's more difference between a Pole and a Finn, than a man and a woman."[59]

It should be noted, however, that the standard deviations associated with each given 2D:4D mean are considerable. For example, the ratio for Han children (0.954±−0.032) allows for a ratio as low as 0.922, while the ratio for Jamaican children (0.935±0.035) allows for a ratio as high as 0.970. Thus some ethnic groups' confidence intervals overlap.

A 2008 study by Lu et al. found that the mean values of 2D:4D of the Hui and the Han in Ningxia were lower than those in European countries like Britain.[44]

In 2007 Manning et al. also found that mean 2D:4D varied across ethnic groups with higher ratios for Whites, Non-Chinese Asians, and Mid-Easterners and lower ratios in Chinese and Black samples.[45]

Two studies explored the question of whether geographical differences in 2D:4D ratios were caused by gene pool differences, or whether some environmental variable associated with latitude might be involved (e.g., exposure to sunlight or different day-length patterns). The conclusions were that geographical differences in 2D:4D ratio were caused by genetic pool differences, not by geographical latitude.[46][47]

Consanguinous parentage (inbreeding) has been found to lower the 2D:4D ratio in offspring,[48] which may account for some of the geographical and ethnic variation in 2D:4D ratios, as consanguinity rates depend among others on religion, culture, and geography.[49]

Correlation with traits

Some authors suggest that digit ratio correlates with health, behavior, and even sexuality in later life. Below is a non-exhaustive list of some traits that have been either demonstrated or suggested to correlate with either high or low digit ratio.

Low digit ratio

High digit ratio

Physiology and disease
  • Increased risk of prostate cancer and prostate diseases in males.[66][50]
  • Slower utero fetal development in both sexes.[66]
  • Increased reproductive success in males.[42]
  • Longer penis size in males.[51]
  • Increased risk of breast cancer in females.[52]
  • Lowered sperm counts[16]
  • Increased risk for heart disease in males[53]
  • Increased risk of obesity and metabolic syndrome in males[54]
  • Reduced risk for prostate cancer[55]
  • Reduced birth size in males[56][57]
  • Increased reproductive success in females.[42]
Psychological disorders
  • Increased rate of ADHD in males[58][59][60][61]
  • Increased rate of Asperger syndrome and other autism spectrum disorders (when comparing digit ratio to general population)[62][63]
  • Increased risk in females for anorexia nervosa.[85]
  • Increased psychopathy in men with low digit ratio and high adult testosterone levels.[64]
  • Increased rate of alcohol dependency,[65] more frequent and more severe binge drinking[66]
  • Increased risk for depression in males[67]
  • Increased rate of schizophrenia[68]
  • Increased rate of psychopathy in females and increased rate of callous affect (subscale of psychopathy) in males[69]
  • Reduced risk of alcohol dependency[65]
  • Reduced risk of video game addiction[70]
  • Increased anxiety in males[71]
  • Increased risk in females for bulimia.[72]
Physical and competitive behaviorIncreased aggressive behavior in sports.[73]
  • Reduced performance in sports[74]
  • Reduced financial trading ability[75]
  • Right handedness skills[76] (inconclusive)[77]
Cognition and personality
  • Assertiveness in females[14]
  • Psychoticism in females[78]
  • Aggression in males[21][79][80][81][82][83]
  • Aggression in females[84]
  • Hyperactivity and poor social cognitive function in girls[85]
  • Masculinized handwriting in females[86]
  • Perceived 'dominance' and masculinity of man's face[87][88]
  • In an orchestral context, rank and musical ability in males[89]
  • Right hand low digit ratio predicts academic performance[90]
  • Inverted U-shape relation between digit ratio and mathematical ability (participants with both high and low digit ratios earn lower grades in mathematics, while participants with intermediate digit ratios achieve the highest grades)[91]
  • Decreased empathy in men, in response to adult testosterone levels[64][92]
  • Higher propensity to attack without being provoked[93]
  • Increased risk-taking behavior in men[94][95]
  • Preference for normative behavior[96]
  • Mean 2D:4D ratio among artists is lower than among controls[97]
  • Higher numeracy (compared to literacy) in children[98]
  • Higher criminal offending rates after puberty[99][100]
  • Attenuated socio-affective skills[101]
  • Conduct disorder in boys[102]
  • Personality traits correlated with digit ratio, higher being more feminized[103][104][105]
  • Greater openness personality factor[106]
  • Paranormal and superstitious beliefs among people with a higher digit ratio[107]
  • Higher exam scores among male students[36][98]
  • Higher neuroticism in both sexes with higher right hand digit ratio[108] and on left hand in females[78]
  • Higher left hand digit ratio in response to high adult testosterone levels predicts musical orchestra rank in females.[109]
  • Higher verbal fluency in both sexes.[110]
  • Higher visual recall in females.[111]
  • Higher literacy (compared to numeracy) in children[98]
Sexual orientation
  • Lesbians have a lower digit ratio, on average, than heterosexual women[142][143][112][113][114][115][116][117][118][119][120][121][122]
  • Bisexual men have a lower digit ratio than exclusively homosexual men and community volunteers recruited regardless of sexual orientation.[155]
  • Tendency toward polygamy[11]
  • Sexual preference for more masculine men among women[123] and gay men[124] with high digit ratio; {{cn-span|a preference for a masculine facial type means a more "feminized" mindset.|date=March 2019}}
  • Lesbians are more likely to be femme and less likely to be butch with a high digit ratio.[113][125] Identical female twins discordant for sexual orientation still show the difference (lesbian less than straight, on average) in digit ratio.[115][122]
  • Homosexuality for men, according to some studies.[114][122][126] Other studies have disputed this; some have shown that the digit ratio in homosexual men is similar to,[112][119][120][121][127] or lower than,[116][128][118][129] that of heterosexual men. One study concluded that differences are dependent on geographical variation, with gay men having lower or similar ratios to straight men in Europe, but higher or similar in the United States.[130] But this finding has been questioned in a meta-analysis including 18 studies, which suggested that ethnicity, rather than geography, explained the differences previously found in men of different sexual orientations. The meta-analysis concluded that no significant sexual orientation differences in digit ratio exist in men.[121]
  • Tendency toward monogamy[11]
{{See also|Biology and sexual orientation|Neuroscience and sexual orientation#2D:4D digit ratio}}

Male-to-female transgender women

A study in Germany has found a correlation between digit ratio and male-to-female transgenderism. Trans women were found to have a higher digit ratio than males. This was not true for trans men, however, who were within the average range for biological females.[131]

Digit ratio and development

There is some evidence that 2D:4D ratio may also be indicative for human development and growth. Ronalds et al. (2002) showed that men who had an above average placental weight and a shorter neonatal crown-heel length had higher 2D:4D ratios in adult life.[132] Moreover, studies about 2D:4D correlations with face shape suggest that testosterone exposure early in life may set some constraints for subsequent development. Prenatal sex steroid ratios (in terms of 2D:4D) and actual chromosomal sex dimorphism were found to operate differently on human faces, but affect male and female face shape by similar patterns.[133] Fink et al. (2004) found that men with low (indicating high testosterone) and women with high (indicating high estrogen) 2D:4D ratios express greater levels of facial symmetry.[134]

Palaeolithic hand stencils

2D:4D is being used alongside other methods to help understand Palaeolithic hand stencils found in prehistoric European and Indonesian cave painting.[135][136][137]

Other animals

  • Dennis McFadden and collaborators have demonstrated sexual dimorphism in hind limb digit ratio in a number of great apes, including gorillas and chimpanzees.[114]
  • Emma Nelson and Susanne Shultz are currently investigating how 2D:4D relates to primate mating strategies and the evolution of human sociality.[138]
  • Nancy Burley's research group has demonstrated sexual dimorphism in zebra finches, and found a correlation between digit ratio in females and the strength of their preference for sexually selected traits in males.[139]
  • Alžbeta Talarovičová and collaborators found in rats that elevated testosterone during the prenatal period can influence 4D length, the 2D:4D ratio, and open field motor activity.[140]
  • Peter L. Hurd, Theodore Garland Jr., and their students have examined hindlimb 2D:4D in lines of mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheel-running behavior (see experimental evolution). These high-runner mice exhibit increased 2D:4D. This apparent "feminization" is opposite to the relation seen between 2D:4D and physical fitness in human beings, and is difficult to reconcile with the idea that 2D:4D is a clear proxy for prenatal androgen exposure in mice. The authors suggest that 2D:4D may more accurately reflect effect of glucocorticoids or other factors that regulate any of various genes.[141]

See also

  • Anogenital distance
  • Body mass index
  • Chiromancy—hand analysis
  • Dermatoglyphics
  • Handedness and sexual orientation
  • Waist–hip ratio

References

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106. ^{{Cite journal | vauthors = Burton LA, Guterman E, Baum G |date=2013-04-23|title=Effect of Prenatal Androgen on Adult Personality: Greater Openness with More Female-Typical 2D:4D Digit Ratios|journal=Current Psychology|language=en|volume=32|issue=2|pages=197–202|doi=10.1007/s12144-013-9170-9|issn=1046-1310}}
107. ^{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.051 |title=Who wants to believe? Associations between digit ratio (2D:4D) and paranormal and superstitious beliefs |date=July 2009 |author=Voracek, M. |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=105–109}}
108. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Fink B, Manning JT, Neave N |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2003.09.018 |title=Second to fourth digit ratio and the 'big five' personality factors |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=495–503 |year=2004 }}
109. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Borniger JC, Chaudhry A, Muehlenbein MP | title = Relationships among musical aptitude, digit ratio and testosterone in men and women | journal = PLOS One | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = e57637 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23520475 | pmc = 3592910 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0057637 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...857637B }}
110. ^1 2 {{Cite book|title = Digit Ratio: A Pointer To Fertility, Behavior And Health|last = Manning|first = John T. | name-list-format = vanc |publisher = Rutger University Press|year = 2002|isbn = 978-0813530291|location = New Brunswick|pages = 65–68}}
111. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Poulin M, O'Connell RL, Freeman LM |doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.03.004 |title=Picture recall skills correlate with 2D:4D ratio in women but not men |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=174–181 |year=2004 }}
112. ^1 2 {{cite journal | vauthors = Williams TJ, Pepitone ME, Christensen SE, Cooke BM, Huberman AD, Breedlove NJ, Breedlove TJ, Jordan CL, Breedlove SM | title = Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation | journal = Nature | volume = 404 | issue = 6777 | pages = 455–6 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10761903 | doi = 10.1038/35006555 | bibcode = 2000Natur.404..455W }}
113. ^1 {{Cite journal|author=Tortorice JL |year=2002 |publisher=Rutgers University |title=Written on the body: butch vs. femme lesbian gender identity and biological correlates of low digit ratio |oclc=80234273|title-link=butch and femme }}
114. ^1 2 {{cite journal | vauthors = McFadden D, Shubel E | title = Relative lengths of fingers and toes in human males and females | journal = Hormones and Behavior | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 492–500 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12488115 | doi = 10.1006/hbeh.2002.1833 }}
115. ^1 {{cite journal | vauthors = Hall LS, Love CT | title = Finger-length ratios in female monozygotic twins discordant for sexual orientation | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 32 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–8 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12597269 | doi = 10.1023/A:1021837211630 }}
116. ^1 {{cite journal | vauthors = Rahman Q, Wilson GD | title = Sexual orientation and the 2nd to 4th finger length ratio: evidence for organising effects of sex hormones or developmental instability? | journal = Psychoneuroendocrinology | volume = 28 | issue = 3 | pages = 288–303 | date = April 2003 | pmid = 12573297 | doi = 10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00022-7 }}
117. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.03.005 |title=Sex hormones and finger length |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=182–199 |year=2004 | vauthors = Putz DA, Gaulin SJ, Sporter RJ, McBurney DH }}
118. ^1 {{cite journal | vauthors = Rahman Q | title = Fluctuating asymmetry, second to fourth finger length ratios and human sexual orientation | journal = Psychoneuroendocrinology | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 382–91 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15694118 | doi = 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2004.10.006 }}
119. ^1 {{cite journal | vauthors = Kraemer B, Noll T, Delsignore A, Milos G, Schnyder U, Hepp U | title = Finger length ratio (2D:4D) and dimensions of sexual orientation | journal = Neuropsychobiology | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 210–4 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16874008 | doi = 10.1159/000094730 }}
120. ^1 {{cite journal | vauthors = Wallien MS, Zucker KJ, Steensma TD, Cohen-Kettenis PT | title = 2D:4D finger-length ratios in children and adults with gender identity disorder | journal = Hormones and Behavior | volume = 54 | issue = 3 | pages = 450–4 | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18585715 | doi = 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.05.002 }}
121. ^1 2 {{cite journal | vauthors = Grimbos T, Dawood K, Burriss RP, Zucker KJ, Puts DA | title = Sexual orientation and the second to fourth finger length ratio: a meta-analysis in men and women | journal = Behavioral Neuroscience | volume = 124 | issue = 2 | pages = 278–87 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20364887 | doi = 10.1037/a0018764 }}
122. ^1 2 {{cite journal | vauthors = Hiraishi K, Sasaki S, Shikishima C, Ando J | title = The second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) in a Japanese twin sample: heritability, prenatal hormone transfer, and association with sexual orientation | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 41 | issue = 3 | pages = 711–24 | date = June 2012 | pmid = 22270254 | doi = 10.1007/s10508-011-9889-z }}
123. ^1 {{cite journal | vauthors = Csathó A, Osváth A, Bicsák E, Karádi K, Manning J, Kállai J | title = Sex role identity related to the ratio of second to fourth digit length in women | journal = Biological Psychology | volume = 62 | issue = 2 | pages = 147–56 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12581689 | doi = 10.1016/S0301-0511(02)00127-8 }}
124. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = McIntyre MH | title = Digit ratios, childhood gender role behavior, and erotic role preferences of gay men | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 32 | issue = 6 | pages = 495–6 | date = December 2003 | pmid = 14627046 | doi = 10.1023/A:1026054625638 }}
125. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown WM, Finn CJ, Cooke BM, Breedlove SM | title = Differences in finger length ratios between self-identified "butch" and "femme" lesbians | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 123–7 | date = February 2002 | pmid = 11910785 | doi = 10.1023/A:1014091420590 }}
126. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Peters M, Manning JT, Reimers S | title = The effects of sex, sexual orientation, and digit ratio (2D:4D) on mental rotation performance | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 36 | issue = 2 | pages = 251–60 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17394056 | doi = 10.1007/s10508-006-9166-8 }}
127. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Yule MA, Brotto LA, Gorzalka BB | title = Biological markers of asexuality: Handedness, birth order, and finger length ratios in self-identified asexual men and women | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 43 | issue = 2 | pages = 299–310 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24045903 | doi = 10.1007/s10508-013-0175-0 }}
128. ^1 {{cite journal | vauthors = Watts TM, Holmes L, Raines J, Orbell S, Rieger G | title = Finger Length Ratios of Identical Twins with Discordant Sexual Orientations | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 47 | issue = 8 | pages = 2435–2444 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 29978344 | doi = 10.1007/s10508-018-1262-z }}
129. ^1 {{cite journal | vauthors = Robinson SJ, Manning JT | title = The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length and male homosexuality | journal = Evolution and Human Behavior | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 333–345 | date = September 2000 | pmid = 11053694 | doi = 10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00052-0 }}
130. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Voracek M, Manning JT, Ponocny I | title = Digit ratio (2D:4D) in homosexual and heterosexual men from Austria | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 335–40 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 15971016 | doi = 10.1007/s10508-005-3122-x }}
131. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Schneider HJ, Pickel J, Stalla GK | title = Typical female 2nd-4th finger length (2D:4D) ratios in male-to-female transsexuals-possible implications for prenatal androgen exposure | journal = Psychoneuroendocrinology | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 265–9 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16140461 | doi = 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.07.005 }}
132. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Ronalds G, Phillips DI, Godfrey KM, Manning JT | title = The ratio of second to fourth digit lengths: a marker of impaired fetal growth? | journal = Early Human Development | volume = 68 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–6 | date = June 2002 | pmid = 12191526 | doi = 10.1016/s0378-3782(02)00009-9 }}
133. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Fink B, Grammer K, Mitteroecker P, Gunz P, Schaefer K, Bookstein FL, Manning JT | title = Second to fourth digit ratio and face shape | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 272 | issue = 1576 | pages = 1995–2001 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16191608 | pmc = 1559906 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2005.3179 }}
134. ^{{Cite journal | vauthors = Fink B, Manning JT, Neave N, Grammer K |doi=10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00084-9 |title=Second to fourth digit ratio and facial asymmetry |date=March 2004 |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=125–32}}
135. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00093704 |title=Sexual dimorphism in Upper Palaeolithic hand stencils |journal=Antiquity |volume=80 |issue=308 |pages=390–404 |year=2006 |last1=Snow |first1=Dean R. | name-list-format = vanc }}
136. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Chazine JM, Noury A |title=Sexual Determination Of Hand Stencils On The Main Panel Of The Gua Masri II Cave (East-Kalimantan/Borneo – Indonesia) |journal=International Newsletter on Rock Art |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00342551 }}
137. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Nelson E, Manning J, Sinclair A |doi=10.3828/bfarm.2006.1.6 |title=News Using the length of the 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D) to sex cave art hand stencils: Factors to consider |journal=Before Farming |volume=2006 |pages=1–7 |year=2006 }}
138. ^{{cite book |first1=Susanne |last1=Shultz |first2=Christopher |last2=Opie |first3=Emma |last3=Nelson |first4=Q. D. |last4=Atkinson |first5=R. I. M. |last5=Dunbar | name-list-format = vanc |chapter=Evolution of Primate Social Systems: Implications for Hominin Social Evolution |pages=317–405 |chapterurl={{Google books|VEakAgAAQBAJ|page=317|plainurl=yes}} |editor1-first=R. I. M. |editor1-last=Dunbar |editor2-first=Clive |editor2-last=Gamble |editor3-first=J. A. J. |editor3-last=Gowlett |year=2014 |title=Lucy to Language: The Benchmark Papers |isbn=978-0-19-965259-4 }}
139. ^{{Cite journal|last=Tyler Burley |first=Nancy | name-list-format = vanc |journal=Evolution|volume=60 |issue=5 |date=May 2006|pages= 1076–1085|jstor=4095408|title=An Eye for Detail: Selective Sexual Imprinting in Zebra Finches |doi=10.1554/05-399.1}}
140. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Talarovicová A, Krsková L, Blazeková J | title = Testosterone enhancement during pregnancy influences the 2D:4D ratio and open field motor activity of rat siblings in adulthood | journal = Hormones and Behavior | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 235–9 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19022257 | doi = 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.10.010 }}
141. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Yan RH, Malisch JL, Hannon RM, Hurd PL, Garland T | title = Selective breeding for a behavioral trait changes digit ratio | journal = PLOS One | volume = 3 | issue = 9 | pages = e3216 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 18797502 | pmc = 2528935 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0003216 | bibcode = 2008PLoSO...3.3216Y }}

External links

{{Commons category|Digit ratio}}
  • [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=search&term=%22digit%20ratio%22or%22digit%20ratios%22or%222D%3A4D%22 PubMed listing of papers on digit ratios]
  • {{Cite journal|first=Michael E. |last=Mills | name-list-format = vanc |date=October 2002 |title=Review of Digit Ratio: A Pointer to Fertility, Behavior and Health by John T. Manning |url=http://human-nature.com/nibbs/02/manning.html |journal=Human Nature Review |volume=2 |pages=418–23}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Digit Ratio}}

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