“Dog food”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Dog food is food specifically formulated and intended for consumption by dogs and other related canines. Like all carnivores, dogs have sharp, pointed teeth, and have short gastrointestinal tracts better suited for the consumption of meat than of vegetable substances. In spite of this natural carnivorous design, dogs have still managed to adapt over thousands of years to survive on the meat and non-meat scraps and leftovers of human existence and thrive on a variety of foods, with studies suggesting dogs' ability to digest carbohydrates easily may be a key difference between dogs and wolves.

In the United States alone, the dog food market is expected to reach $23.3 billion by 2022.^[1]

History

Prior to being domesticated, dogs, being canines, fended for themselves and survived on a carnivorous diet. After adapting them for protection, work, and companionship, people began to care at least in part for their nutritional needs. The historic record of his changing approach dates back at least 2,000 years.

"Do not let the care of dogs be last; but the swift Spartan hounds, and fierce Mastiff, Feed the whey"}}

Around 70 CE, Columella wrote his book On Agriculture in which he addresses the feeding of dogs:

"Provisions of victuals are almost the same for both [types of dog]. If the fields are so large as to sustain herds of animals, barley meal mixed with whey is a convenient food. But if it is an orchard without grain, spelt or wheat bread is fed mixed with the liquid from cooked beans, but warm, for boiling creates rabies."}}

In France, the word pâtée began to appear in the 18th century and referred to a paste originally given to poultry. In 1756, a dictionary indicates it was made of a mixture of bread crumbs and little pieces of meat given to pets.^[5]

In 1781, an encyclopedia mentioned an earlier practice of removing the liver, heart, and blood of a downed stag and mixing it with milk, cheese, and bread; and then giving it to dogs.^[6]

In 1844, the French writer, Nicolas Boyard, warned against even giving tallow graves (the dregs of the tallow pot) to dogs, though the English favored them (see below), and suggested a meat-flavored soup:

In England, care to give dogs particular food dates at least from the late eighteenth century, when The Sportsman's dictionary (1785) described the best diet for a dog's health in its article "Dog":

Barley meal, the dross of wheatflour, or both mixed together, with broth or skim'd milk, is very proper food. For change, a small quantity of greaves from which the tallow is pressed by the chandlers, mixed with their flour ; or sheep's feet well baked or boiled, are a very good diet, and when you indulge them with flesh it should always be boiled. In the season of hunting your dogs, it is proper to feed them in the evening before, and give them nothing in the morning you take them out, except a little milk. If you stop for your own refreshment in the day, you should also refresh your dogs with a little milk and bread.^[8]}}

In 1833, The Complete Farrier gave similar but far more extensive advice on feeding dogs:^[9]

It was not until the mid-1800s that the world saw its first food made specifically for dogs. An American electrician, James Spratt, concocted the first dog treat. Living in London at the time, he witnessed dogs around a shipyard eating scraps of discarded biscuits. Shortly thereafter he introduced his dog food, made up of wheat meals, vegetables and meat. By 1890 production had begun in the United States and became known as "Spratt’s Patent Limited".

Canned horse meat was introduced in the United States under the Ken-L Ration brand after World War I as a means to dispose of deceased horses. The 1930s saw the introduction of canned cat food and dry meat-meal dog food by the Gaines Food Co. By the time World War II ended, pet food sales had reached $200 million. In the 1950s Spratt's became part of General Mills. For companies such as Nabisco, Quaker Oats, and General Foods, pet food represented an opportunity to market by-products as a profitable source of income.^[12]

Foods dangerous to dogs

A number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including chocolate solids (theobromine poisoning), onion and garlic (thiosulfate, sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning^[13]), grapes and raisins (cause kidney failure in dogs), milk (some dogs are lactose intolerant and suffer diarrhea; goats' milk can be beneficial), nutmeg (neurotoxic to dogs),^[14] macadamia nuts, as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials.^[15]^[16]

A full list of poison/toxic substances can be found on the ASPCA's website.^[17]

Food allergies in dogs and hypoallergenic diets

Dogs are prone to have adverse allergic reactions to food similar to human beings. The most common symptoms of food allergies in dogs include rashes, swelling, itchy or tender skin, and gastrointestinal upsets such as uncontrollable bowel movements and soft stools.^[18] Certain ingredients in dog food can elicit these allergic reactions. Specifically, the reactions are understood to be initiated by the protein ingredients in dog food, with sources such as beef, chicken, soy, and turkey being common causes of these allergic reactions.^[19]^[19] A number of "novel protein" dog foods are available that claim to alleviate such allergies in dogs.^[20]

Grain-free and low-carbohydrate

Some dog food products differentiate themselves as grain- or carbohydrate-free to offer the consumer an alternative, claiming carbohydrates in pet foods to be fillers with little or no nutritional value. However, a study published in Nature suggests that domestic dogs' ability to easily metabolize carbohydrates may be a key difference between wolves and dogs.^[24]

Studies published in 2018 suggest a possible link between grain-free diets and severe heart disease in dogs. While the FDA is continuing to investigate, recommendations against grain-free and exotic diets, based on findings of taurine deficiencies found in dogs on such diets suffering from heart diseases that are uncommon for their breed.^[25]

Contamination issues

Melamine

In 2007, following a series of reports of renal failure in pets, there was a widespread recall of pet foods due to contamination found in ingredients produced in China. The contaminant was identified as melamine^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31] which had been added as an adulterant to simulate a higher protein content.

Salmonella and other concerns

Recently, the FDA has released a video focusing on another major threat in commercial pet food: Salmonella bacterial contamination. They also cite other major toxins of concern.^[32] The video references the case of a specific commercial pet food plant that was also the subject of a March 2014 study published in the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. It details how at least 53 known human illnesses were linked to commercial pet foods made at that plant in 2012.^[33] A class action lawsuit linked to this outbreak was recently settled.^[34]

The video also cites the dangers of over supplementation of nutrients in pet food. A study published in the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association in February 2013 suggested a correlation between liver disease and the amount of copper supplementation in AAFCO diets.^[35]

In addition "taurine deficiency" has been found in dogs^[36]^[37] and cats^[38] fed commercial diets intended to be "complete and balanced". Not usually considered an essential nutrient in dogs, taurine is plentiful in most whole meats whether raw or cooked,^[39] but is reduced in extruded diets. Cats require more taurine in their diets due to their increased rate of protein metabolism; taurine is usually synthesized in the body from methionine and cysteine, but cats' increased use of these amino acids in normal bodily functions mean that taurine itself must also be provided in the diet.

The above observations could also be explained by the rendered, highly processed source of meat being less rich in taurine and by the fact that some of the taurine is denatured during extrusion. Cats are obligate carnivores^[40] and their natural diet would consist of high amounts of whole meat - thus what has been termed "taurine deficiency" causing dilated cardiomyopathy in cats, is more likely to be a deficiency in the production of commercial feed diets. Taurine is now artificially supplemented back into the diet after processing in the production of most commercial pet food. A similar dynamic occurred in the first half of the twentieth century with an epidemic of Pellagra^[41] in humans living in the Southern United States. The cause was determined to be a deficiency of the essential vitamin niacin (B₃), which was being destroyed in the mass processing of corn. Niacin was supplemented back into Southern diets and the disease was eradicated.

Mycotoxins

In April 2014, aflatoxin B1, a known carcinogenic toxin, melamine, and cyanuric acid were all found in various brands of USA pet food imported into Hong Kong. Since 1993, the FDA has confirmed concerns of toxins in feed grade (animal grade) ingredients, yet to date no comprehensive federal regulation exists on mycotoxin testing in feed grade (animal grade) ingredients used to make pet food.^[42]

In 1997, the journal of Food Additives and Contaminants established that low levels of various mycotoxins could cause health concerns in pets, and was found in feed grade ingredients.^[43]

A study published in the Journal of Food Protection in 2001 cited concerns regarding fungi (the source of mycotoxins) in commercial pet foods and warned about the "risk for animal health".^[44]

In 2006, a study published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry confirmed mycotoxins in pet foods around the world and concluded that contamination of mycotoxins in pet foods can lead to chronic effects on the health of pets.^[45]

In 2007, the International Journal of Food Microbiology published a study that claimed "mycotoxin contamination in pet food poses a serious health threat to pets", and listed them: aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins and fusaric acid.^[46]

A 2008 study published in the Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition found high levels of mycotoxins in the raw ingredients used for pet food in Brazil.^[47]

A 2010 study in the journal of Mycotoxin Research tested 26 commercial dog foods and found mycotoxins at concerning sub-lethal levels. It was determined that long-term exposure to low levels of confirmed mycotoxins could pose chronic health risks.^[48]

For all the above reasons, a current trend away from feed ingredients, and toward USDA certified ingredients fit for human consumption has developed.^[49]

Commercial varieties

Most commercially produced dog food is made with animal feed grade ingredients and comes dry in bags (also known in the US as kibble) or wet in cans. Dry food contains 6–10% moisture by volume, as compared to 60–90% in canned food. Semi-moist products typically run 25–35%.

Dry food

Dry food is both convenient and typically inexpensive, with over $8 billion worth being sold in 2010 – a 50% increase over just seven years earlier.^[50] Dry food processing is popular in the pet food industry as it is an efficient way to supply continuous production of feed in various variety as it is energy efficient, allows for large amounts of feed to be used, and is cost effective.^[51] To make dog kibble, a process known as extrusion is done.^[51]

A simple extruder consists of a barrel, helical screws, and a die (tool to cut and shape food).^[51] Some extruders in the United States also contain a fat distributor, where the food mixture enters the barrel of the extruder through a funnel-like structure.^[52] Fat is stored in a container where it is pumped through a heat exchanger and fed through a line connected to the barrel of the extruder with a valve to prevent backflow of fat.^[52] A metering device connected to this line allows for control of fat amounts deposited in the mixture.^[52] Pressure is applied by helical screws that is driven by a motor.^[52] The food mixture is shaped by going through the die when the extrusion process ends, allowing a fly knife to cut the extruded feed.^[52]

Mixture of feed ingredients are solid at room temperature, therefore, the extrusion process of these ingredients requires a temperature higher than this in order to soften or melt the mixture and allow for fluidity through the barrel.^[51] In the United States, before entering the extruder, water is added to the starch mixture to elevate the moisture content to 20 to 35%.^[52] During the extrusion process, the high amounts of pressure applied to the mixture forces it to enter through the die before exiting the extruder completely.^[51] The material is put through high amounts of shear stress that generates heat which allows for mixture to come together.^[51] Temperature in the extruder is raised to above 100 degrees Celsius by the use of steam, hot water, or other heat sources.^[52] The pressure is increased to allow starch granules to gelatinize.^[52] Fat used in US extruders is then added into the mixture at the metering zone of the extruder which allows for the incorporation of fat, but without affecting the product's ability to expand.^[52] Feed mixture stays in the extruder for only 15 to 120 seconds before exiting through die openings.^[52] As the feed exits the extruder, it is subjected to relatively lower amounts of heat and pressure, that results in the expansion of the product, creating its “puffed” kibble appearance.^[52] The feed is expelled in one long sequence where it is cut to its desired size by a rotating fly knife.^[52] As moisture of this extrudate is at roughly 20 to 35% of its weight, it is dried further in an oven to reduce its moisture content to 8 to 10%.^[52]

Wet food

Wet or canned dog food is significantly higher in moisture than dry or semi-moist food.^[53] Canned food is commercially sterile (cooked during canning); other wet foods may not be sterile. Sterilizing is done through the process of retorting.^[54] A given wet food will often be higher in protein or fat compared to a similar kibble on a dry matter basis (a measure which ignores moisture); given the canned food's high moisture content, however, a larger amount of canned food must be fed. Grain gluten and other protein gels may be used in wet dog food to create artificial meaty chunks, which look like real meat.

After ingredients are combined, they are placed in a tank at the end of a canning machine.^[54] From there, the mixture is forced through an opening and onto a metal sheet, forming a thickness of 8 to 12mm.^[54] Next, the mixture is heated to thoroughly cook the ingredients.^[54] Heating can be done through the means of ovens, microwaves or steam heating.^[54] The sheet containing a layer of feed is passed through the heat source that displays heat to the top and bottom of the tray, allowing the internal temperature to reach 77 degrees Celsius at a minimum.^[54] Once cooked, this mixture can be directly placed into cans to form a loaf or it can be cut into “meaty” pieces for chunks and gravy formulas.^[54]

For canned pet foods in the United States, a process known as retort is employed to sterilize the product using steam.^[55] It is important to ensure that the formulation made is resistant to bacterial contamination and spoilage.^[55] The now canned mixture is placed in a retort where steam brings the temperature up to 121 degrees Celsius.^[55] To ensure that heat reaches the center of the mixture, the can stays inside the retort for roughly 75 minutes.^[55] However, some steam retorts are able to reach the center of the can in only 10 minutes.^[55]

Alternatives

In recent years, alternatives to traditional commercial pet foods have appeared. Many companies have been successful in targeting niche markets, each with unique characteristics. Some popular alternative dog food types are:

Many commercial dog foods are made from materials considered by some authorities and dog owners to be unusable or undesirable.^[60] These may include:

Less expensive dog foods generally include less meat, and more animal by-products and grain fillers. Proponents of a natural diet criticize the use of such ingredients, and point out that regulations allow for packaging that might lead a consumer to believe that they are buying natural food, when, in reality, the food might be composed mostly of ingredients such as those listed above.^[61]^[62] More expensive dog foods may be made of ingredients suitable for organic products or free range meats. Lamb meal is a popular ingredient. Ingredients must be listed by amount in descending order.

According to the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO), animal by-products in pet food may include parts obtained from any animals which have died from sickness or disease provided they are rendered in accordance to law. As well, cow brains and spinal cords, not allowed for human consumption under federal regulation 21CFR589.2000 due to the possibility of transmission of BSE, are allowed to be included in pet food intended for non-ruminant animals.^[63] In 2003, the AVMA speculated changes might be made to animal feed regulations to ban materials from "4-D" animals – those who enter the food chain as dead, dying, diseased or disabled.^[64]

One emerging differentiation between pet food qualities in the United States is the use of standard feed grade (animal grade) ingredients versus the use of USDA-inspected, approved, and certified ingredients fit for human consumption.^[65]{{unreliable source?|date=September 2015}}^[66]{{unreliable source?|date=September 2015}} The USDA certification and approval process is among the best quality control programs in food production in the world.^[67] The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recently commented that the ingredients defined as feed in pet food (feed grade or animal grade) are not classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS).^[68] Examples of potential toxins include melamine, Salmonella, and mycotoxins. Only the language "USDA certified" or "USDA approved" is legally meaningful.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} Some companies will say "Made with ingredients from a USDA facility", or "USA Meat", which is misleading as it can include dead or dying animals or carcasses rejected from the human food chain and is not the same as USDA inspected, approved, or certified, which are FDA approved for human consumption.^[69]

Packaging

Dry dog food (kibbles) is most often packed in multi-wall paper bags, sometimes with a plastic film layer; similar bag styles with film laminates or coextrusions are also used. Wet dog food is often packed in aluminum cans or steel cans. Packaging regulations for dog food are often very similar to corresponding regulations for human foods. {{Citation needed|date=May 2016}}

Raw dog food

Raw feeding is the practice of feeding domestic dogs, cats and other animals a diet consisting primarily of uncooked meat, edible bones, and organs. The ingredients used to formulate raw diets can vary. Some pet owners choose to make homemade raw diets to feed their animals but commercial raw food diets are also available.^[70]

The practice of feeding raw diets has raised some concerns due to the risk of foodborne illnesses, zoonosis and nutritional imbalances.^[71] People who feed their dogs raw food do so for a multitude of reasons, including but not limited to: culture, beliefs surrounding health, nutrition and what is perceived to be more natural for their pets.^[72] Feeding raw food can be perceived as allowing the pet to stay in touch with their wild, carnivorous ancestry.^[72] The raw food movement has occurred in parallel to the change in human food trends for more natural and organic products.^[70]

Senior dog food

Senior dogs require specialized diets that are catered towards the aging animal. There are various physiological changes which a dog goes through as it ages. Commercially available senior dog diets address these changes through various ingredients and nutrients.

When looking for a senior dog food, one of the first things that should be noted is the energy content of the diet. The maintenance energy requirements decrease as a dog ages due to the loss in lean body mass that occurs.^[73] Therefore, senior dogs will require a diet with a lowered energy content compared to non senior diets. Although senior dogs require lower energy content diets, they will also require diets that are higher in protein and protein digestibility. This is due to the fact that does have a reduced ability to synthesize proteins as they age.^[74]

Joint and bone health is an important factor to be considered when purchasing a senior dog food. The addition of glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate have been shown to improve cartilage formation, the composition of synovial fluid as well as improve signs of osteoarthritis.^[75] The calcium to phosphorus ratio of senior dog foods is also important. Calcium and phosphorus are considered essential nutrients according to AAFCO.

The aging dog goes through changes in brain and cognitive health.^[79] There are two highly important ingredients that can be included in senior dog foods to help prevent cognitive decline and improve brain health. These ingredients are vitamin E and L-carnitne. Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant which can prevent oxidative damage that occurs during aging.^[79] L-carnitine is used to improve mitochondrial function which can also help to prevent and lower rates of oxidative damage.^[79]

Low-protein dog diets

According to The Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) nutrient guideline for cats and dogs, the minimum protein requirement for dogs during adult maintenance is 18% on a dry matter (DM) basis.^[85] Other parts of the world would have a guideline similar to AAFCO. The European Pet Food Federation (FEDIAF) also stated a minimum of 18%.^[86] AAFCO only provided a minimum, but majority of the diets found on the market contain a protein level exceeding the minimum. Some diets have a protein level lower than others (such as 18-20%). These low-protein diets would not be seen with growth and reproductive life stages because of their higher demand for protein, as such, these diets are for dogs meeting maintenance levels.^[85] They can be purchased, such as vegetarian, vegan, weight control, and senior diets. Furthermore, this protein requirement varies from species to species. Cats have a higher protein requirement, stated 26% for adult maintenance by AAFCO, where a dog low-protein diet would not be suitable as a cat diet.^[85]

Quality, digestibility and energy density

There are a few key components in regards to providing protein in a diet that need to be taken into consideration when evaluating the needs and if they are being met. These factors include the quality and digestibility of the protein provided in the diet, as well as the composition of the amino acids included, and finally the energy density provided in the diet.^[87] As the quality, composition, and digestibility of the protein increase in a diet, there is less need to increase the amount of protein present in the diet, and the same can be said in regards to the energy density.^[87] In contrast, high-protein diets will provide excess protein content after meeting maintenance demands; this can therefore lead to the protein being utilized in fat and energy storage.^[87] Ultimately increasing risks for developing obesity and other health related issues.^[88] However, higher protein in the diet helps reduce lean body mass loss,^[89] but will not lead to an increase in size of muscle^[90] unless paired with resistance exercises^[91] or anabolic steroids under maintenance conditions.

Disadvantages

There is an increasing risk of the practice of coprophagy when providing low-protein diets to dogs, a negative correlation exists between the amount of protein fed and the occurrence of coprophagy.^[92] Maintenance needs should still be met by low-protein diets, and the muscle turnover (i.e. synthesis and breakdown) will also remain at an optimal rate, as long as the amino acid intake remains balanced and there is no limiting amino acids.^[92] However, there is a greater opportunity for amino acids to be balanced in diets containing higher protein content.^[87]

Advantages

The dog's simple gastrointestinal tract contains a vast array of microbial populations; some members of this very diversified community include fusobacteria, proteobacteria, and actinobacteria.^[93] The gut microbiota of the dog will be comparable to that of the owners due to similar environmental impacts. Not only are the microbes influenced by the dog's environment, but they are also impacted by the macronutrient content of the dog's diet.^[93] The populations present and health status of the microbiota found within the gut can alter the physiological and metabolic functions of the dog, which then subsequently affects susceptibility to disease development.^[93]

The age of dogs and cats is inversely proportional to protein consumption.^[96] As they age, the protein requirement decreases due to lower level of pepsin in their stomachs.^[96] There has also been discussion about higher protein content in diets being inversely related with lifespan (i.e. negative relationship), where lower protein content diets were related to longer lifespans.^[92]

Differences from low-protein cat food

Low-protein dog diets are fundamentally different from low-protein cat diets, due to significant differences between the protein requirement of the two species. A minimum of 26% crude protein on a DM basis is required for adult maintenance in cats according to AAFCO, compared to only 18% in dogs.^[85] In addition, there is slightly more protein found in cat milk compared to dog milk, meaning that kittens are consuming more protein at birth compared to puppies.^[97]^[98]

Cats are considered as obligate carnivores and dogs are known as omnivores.^[87] Cats are thus unable to down-regulate the amount of enzymes they are using based on the amount of protein in the body.^[87] Regardless if they were on a high- or low-protein diet, they would be using the same amount of the enzymes to break down protein.^[87] In contrast, dogs are able to regulate the amount of nitrogen catabolic enzymes based on if they are consuming a high- or low-protein diet.^[87] Cats also use much more protein for body maintenance than for growth, which is the opposite to dogs, meaning that cats have a higher protein turnover that consequentially increased their protein requirements.^[87]

Vegetarian and vegan dog food

Like the human practice of veganism, vegan dog foods are those formulated with the exclusion of ingredients that contain or were processed with any part of an animal, or any animal byproduct.^[99] Vegan dog food may incorporate the use of fruits, vegetables, cereals, legumes, nuts, vegetable oils, soya, as well as any other non-animal based foods.^[100] The omnivorous domestic canine has evolved to metabolize carbohydrates and thrive on a diet lower in protein, and therefore, a vegan diet may be substantial if properly formulated and balanced.^[101]

Popularity of this diet has grown with a corresponding increase in people practicing vegetarianism, and there are now various commercial vegetarian and vegan diets available on the market.^[101]

Due to the exclusion of animal products and by-products which are primary ingredients of conventional dog food, many nutrients that would otherwise be provided by animal products need to be provided by replacement, plant-based ingredients.^[101] While both animal and plant products offer a wide range of macro and micronutrients, strategic formulation of plant ingredients should be considered to meet nutritional requirements as different nutrients are more abundant in different plant sources.^[102] Despite the large differences in ingredient sourcing, studies have demonstrated that a plant-based diet can be just as edible and palatable as animal-based diets for dogs.^[102]

Some nutrients that require special consideration include protein, calcium, Vitamin D, Vitamin B12, taurine, L-carnitine, and omega-3 fatty acids, particularly DHA and EPA. Although their sources are more limited without animal products, it is possible to formulate a diet adequate in these nutrients through plant and synthetic sources.^[102]

Potential risks in feeding a plant-based diet include alkaline urine and nutrient inadequacy, especially in homemade diets.^[103]^[102] Adherence to recommendations by reliable sources is strongly advised.

Labeling

In the United States, dog foods labelled as "complete and balanced" must meet standards established by the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) either by meeting a nutrient profile or by passing a feeding trial. The Dog Food Nutrient Profiles were last updated in 1995 by the AAFCO's Canine Nutrition Expert Subcommittee.

Critics argue that due to the limitations of the trial and the gaps in knowledge within animal nutrition science, the term "complete and balanced" is inaccurate and even deceptive. An AAFCO panel expert has stated that "although the AAFCO profiles are better than nothing, they provide false securities."^[104]

Certain manufacturers label their products with terms such as premium, ultra premium, natural and holistic. Such terms currently have no legal definitions. There are also varieties of dog food labeled as "human-grade food". Although no official definition of this term exists, the assumption is that other brands use foods that would not pass US Food and Drug Administration inspection according to the Pure Food and Drug Act or the Meat Inspection Act.{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

The ingredients on the label must be listed in descending order by weight before cooking. This means before all of the moisture is removed from the meat, fruits, vegetables and other ingredients used.{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

Recalls

The 2007 pet food recalls involved the massive recall of many brands of cat and dog foods beginning in March 2007.^[105] The recalls came in response to reports of renal failure in pets consuming mostly wet pet foods made with wheat gluten from a single Chinese company, beginning in February 2007. After more than three weeks of complaints from consumers, the recall began voluntarily with the Canadian company Menu Foods on March 16, 2007, when a company test showed sickness and death in some of the test animals.

Overall, several major companies have recalled more than 100 brands of pet foods, with most of the recalled product coming from Menu Foods. Although there are several theories of the source of the agent causing sickness in affected animals, with extensive government and private testing and forensic research, to date, no definitive cause has been isolated. As of April 10, 2007, the most likely cause, according to the FDA, though not yet proven, was indicated by the presence of melamine in wheat gluten in the affected foods.

In the United States, there has been extensive media coverage of the recall. There have been calls for government regulation of pet foods{{by whom?|date=October 2018}}, which had previously been self-regulated by pet food manufacturers. The economic impact on the pet food market has been extensive, with Menu Foods losing roughly $30 million alone from the recall.

In 1999, another fungal toxin triggered the recall of dry dog food made by Doane Pet Care at one of its plants, including Ol' Roy, Wal-Mart's brand, as well as 53 other brands. This time the toxin killed 25 dogs.^[106]

A 2005 consumer alert was released for contaminated Diamond Pet Foods for dogs and cats. Over 100 canine deaths and at least one feline fatality have been linked to Diamond Pet Foods contaminated by potentially deadly aflatoxin, according to Cornell University veterinarians.^[107]

In recent years, recalls of traditional and raw commercial pet foods have become frequent due to increased awareness and testing by the FDA. A dynamic list of recall alerts is continually updated by the FDA.^[108]

See also

References

1. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.euromonitor.com/dog-food-in-the-us/report|title=Dog Food in the US|website=Euromonitor.com|accessdate=12 August 2018}}
2. ^{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/?id=1KAWAAAAYAAJ&q=Sero+pingui&pg=PA62|title=Bucolica, Georgica, et Aeneis: accedunt clavis metrica, notulae Anglicae, et quaestiones|last=Virgil|date=6 December 2017|publisher=Hilliard, Gray, Little et Wilkins|via=Google Books}}
3. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/columella/columella.rr7.shtml|title=Columella: de Re Rustica VII|website=Thelatinlibrary.com}}
4. ^{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4PE1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA162&lpg=PA162|title=The Zend-Avesta: The Vendîdâd, translated by James Darmesteter|first1=James|last1=Darmesteter|first2=Lawrence Heyworth|last2=Mills|date=6 December 1895|publisher=Clarendon Press|via=Google Books}}
5. ^{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/?id=lQGqLxH9eAYC&pg=PA192&q=p%C3%A2t%C3%A9e+chien|title=Nouveau dictionnaire universel des arts et des sciencies: françois, latin et anglois...|first=Fr Girard (Viuda|last=de)|date=6 December 2017|publisher=chez la Veuve de Fr. Girard|via=Google Books}}
6. ^[https://books.google.com/books?pg=PA145&dq=p%C3%A2t%C3%A9e+chien&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1600&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1800&cd=4&id=QP06AAAAcAAJ&num=100&as_brr=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Denis Diderot, Jean Le Rond d' Alembert, Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences ..., Volume 35, Part 1]
7. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=ODpFAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA552&num=100&q=intitle%3A%22animaux%20domestiques%22%20chat Nicolas Jean Baptiste Boyard, Manuel du bouvier et zoophile: ou l'art d'élever de soigner les animaux 1844, 327]
8. ^{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/?id=x-oDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT158|title=The Sportsman's Dictionary; Or, The Gentleman's Companion: for Town and Country: Containing Full and Particular Instructions for Riding, Hunting, Fowling ... Hawking, &c. With the Various Methods to be Observed in Breeding and Dieting of Horses Both for the Road and Turf; Also, the Management of Dogs, Gamecocks, Dunghill-fowls, Turkies, Geese, Ducks, Pigeons, Singing-birds, &c. And the Manner of Curing Their Various Diseases and Accidents|date=6 December 1785|publisher=G.G.J. and J. Robinson|via=Google Books}}
9. ^{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/?id=xj8AAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA429|title=The Complete Farrier, and British Sportsman: Containing a Systematic Enquiry Into the Structure and Animal Economy of the Horse, the Causes, Symptoms , and Most-approved Methods of Prevention and Cure for Every Disease to which He is Liable ... with Numerous ... Recipes for Various Diseases. ... Including a ... Declineation of the ... Dogs Used in the Sports of the Field, with Canine Pathology. With an Appendix, Containing a Minute Anatomical Description of the ... Skeleton of the Horse; the ... Muscles ... and the Different Viscera|first=Richard|last=Lawrence|date=6 December 2017|publisher=W. Clowes for T. Kelly|via=Google Books}}
10. ^{{cite web|title=The Best Dog Food for Small Dogs|url=http://www.allsmalldogs.org/dog-food/the-best-dog-food-for-small-dogs/|website=allsmalldogs.org|accessdate=January 11, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812224309/http://www.allsmalldogs.org/dog-food/the-best-dog-food-for-small-dogs/|archivedate=August 12, 2014|date=December 21, 2013}}
11. ^{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/?id=qAygAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA523&q=%22dog+food%22|title=Outing: Sport, Adventure, Travel, Fiction|date=6 December 1890|publisher=W. B. Holland|via=Google Books}}
12. ^{{cite web| url = http://www.sojos.com/historyofpetfood.html| title = History of Pet Food|publisher=sojos.com|accessdate=2011-09-10}}
13. ^Sources vary on which of these are considered the most significant toxic item.
14. ^ , Toxic Food Guide for Pets
15. ^{{cite web|title=Toxic Foods and Plants for Dogs|url=http://www.entirelypets.com/toxicfoods.html|publisher=entirelypets.com|accessdate=2010-06-24}}
16. ^{{cite web|last=Drs. Foster & Smith|title=Foods to Avoid Feeding Your Dog|url=http://www.peteducation.com/article.cfm?c=2+1659&aid=1030|publisher=peteducation.com|accessdate=2010-06-24}}
17. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/people-foods-avoid-feeding-your-pets|title=People Foods to Avoid Feeding Your Pets|website=Aspca.org}}
18. ^{{Cite journal|last=Favrot|first=Claude|date=2016|title=Diagnosis of canine atopic dermatitis (including food allergy)|url=http://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/126583/1/Favrot_CAD_WCVD_2016.pdf|journal=World Congress of Veterinary Dermatology|volume=|pages=|via=ZORA}}
19. ^{{Cite book|title=Comparative Medicine: Disorders Linking Humans with their Animals|last=Jensen-Jarolim|first=Erika|publisher=Springer|year=2017|isbn=978-3-319-47007-8|location=Cham, Switzerland|pages=121}}
20. ^{{Cite book|title=Canine Nutrigenomics: The New Science of Feeding Your Dog for Optimum Health|last=Dodds|first=W. Jean|publisher=Dogwise Publishing|year=2015|isbn=|location=|pages=}}
21. ^¹{{Cite journal|last=Verlindin, A., Hesta, M., Millet, S., and Janssens, G.P.J.|date=2007|title=Food Allergy in Dogs and Cats: A review|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=46|issue=3|pages=259–273|doi=10.1080/10408390591001117|pmid=16527756}}
22. ^¹²{{Cite journal|last=Kennis|first=Robert, A.|date=2006|title=Food Allergies: Update of Pathogenesis, Diagnoses, and Management|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/S0195561605001257?via%3Dihub|journal=Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice|volume=36|issue=1|pages=175–184|via=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2005.09.012|pmid=16364783}}
23. ^¹{{Cite journal|last=Cave|first=Nicholas, J|date=2006|title=Hydrolyzed Protein Diets for Dogs and Cats|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/S0195561606000994?via%3Dihub|journal=Veterinary Clinics Small Animal Practice|volume=36|issue=6|pages=1251–1268|via=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2006.08.008|pmid=17085233}}
24. ^{{cite news| url=http://articles.latimes.com/2013/jan/23/science/la-sci-how-dogs-evolved-20130124 | work=Los Angeles Times | first=Rosie | last=Mestel | title=Carbs were key in wolves' evolution into dogs | date=2013-01-23}}
25. ^{{cite web|url=http://vetnutrition.tufts.edu/2018/06/a-broken-heart-risk-of-heart-disease-in-boutique-or-grain-free-diets-and-exotic-ingredients/|title=A broken heart: Risk of heart disease in boutique or grain-free diets and exotic ingredients – Clinical Nutrition Service at Cummings School|first=Lisa M. Freeman, DVM, PhD|last=DACVN|website=Vetnutrition.tufts.edu|accessdate=12 August 2018|date=2018-06-04}}
26. ^{{cite web|author=The Business of Pet Food |url=http://www.petfood.aafco.org/caloriecontent.aspx |title=The Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) > Calorie Content |publisher=Petfood.aafco.org |date= |accessdate=2014-08-10}}
27. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Cianciolo RE, Bischoff K, Ebel JG, Van Winkle TJ, Goldstein RE, Serfilippi LM |title=Clinicopathologic, histologic, and toxicologic findings in 70 cats inadvertently exposed to pet food contaminated with melamine and cyanuric acid |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=233 |issue=5 |pages=729–37 |date=September 2008 |pmid=18764706 |doi=10.2460/javma.233.5.729}}
28. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Thompson ME, Lewin-Smith MR, Kalasinsky VF |title=Characterization of melamine-containing and calcium oxalate crystals in three dogs with suspected pet food-induced nephrotoxicosis |journal=Veterinary Pathology |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=417–26 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18487505 |doi=10.1354/vp.45-3-417|display-authors=etal}}
29. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Dobson RL, Motlagh S, Quijano M |title=Identification and characterization of toxicity of contaminants in pet food leading to an outbreak of renal toxicity in cats and dogs |journal=Toxicological Sciences |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=251–62 |date=November 2008 |pmid=18689873 |doi=10.1093/toxsci/kfn160|display-authors=etal}}
30. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Rumbeiha WK, Agnew D, Maxie G |title=Analysis of a survey database of pet food-induced poisoning in North America |journal=Journal of Medical Toxicology |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=172–184 |date=June 2010 |pmid=20393823 |pmc=3550281 |doi=10.1007/s13181-010-0022-9|display-authors=etal}}
31. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Cocchi M, Vascellari M, Gallina A, Agnoletti F, Angeletti R, Mutinelli F |title=Canine nephrotoxicosis induced by melamine-contaminated pet food in Italy |journal=The Journal of Veterinary Medical Science |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=103–7 |date=January 2010 |pmid=19915330 |url=http://joi.jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JSTAGE/jvms/09-0278?lang=en&from=PubMed |doi=10.1292/jvms.09-0278}}
32. ^{{cite news|title=FDA Video Pet Food Safety|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_X0F-XYHHxk|date=February 2014}}
33. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Imanishi M, Rotstein DS, Reimschuessel R |title=Outbreak of Salmonella enterica serotype Infantis infection in humans linked to dry dog food in the United States and Canada, 2012 |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=244 |issue=5 |pages=545–53 |date=March 2014 |pmid=24548229 |doi=10.2460/javma.244.5.545|display-authors=etal}}
34. ^{{cite news|title=Diamond Pet Foods Agrees to Class Action Settlement|url=http://legalnewsline.com/issues/class-action/248371-diamond-pet-foods-agrees-to-class-action-settlement}}
35. ^{{cite journal|last1=Johnston|first1=Andrea|title=DVM|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|date=February 1, 2013|volume=242|issue=3|pages=372–380|doi=10.2460/javma.242.3.372|pmid=23327181}}
36. ^{{cite journal|last1=Fascetti|first1=Andrea|title=Taurine deficiency in dogs with dilated cardiomyopathy|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|date=October 2003|volume=223|issue=8|pages=1137–1141|doi=10.2460/javma.2003.223.1137}}
37. ^{{cite journal|last1=Fascetti|first1=Andrea|title=Taurine deficiency in dogs with cilated cardiomyopathy|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|date=October 2003|volume=223|issue=8|pages=1137–1141|doi=10.2460/javma.2003.223.1137}}
38. ^{{cite book|last1=Pion|first1=Paul|title=Dilated cardiomyopathy associated with taurine deficiency in the domestic cat: relationship to diet and mycardial taurine content|date=1992|volume=315|pages=63–73|doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-3436-5_8|pmid=1387282|series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|isbn=978-1-4613-6520-4}}
39. ^{{cite journal|last1=Spitze|first1=AR|title=Taurine concentrations in animla feed ingredients; cooking influences taurine content|journal=Journal Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition|date=2003|volume=87|issue=7–8|pages=251–262|url=http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/vmb/aal/pdfs/spitze.pdf|accessdate=21 June 2014|doi=10.1046/j.1439-0396.2003.00434.x}}
40. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Zoran | first1 = Debra L. | last2 = Buffington | first2 = C. A. Tony | year = 2011 | title = Effects of nutrition choices and lifestyle changes on the well-being of cats, a carnivore that has moved indoors | url = | journal = Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association | volume = 239 | issue = 5| pages = 596–606 | doi=10.2460/javma.239.5.596| pmid = 21879959 }}
41. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Hegyi | first1 = J. | last2 = Schwartz | first2 = R. A. | last3 = Hegyi | first3 = V. | year = 2004 | title = Pellagra: Dermatitis, dementia, and diarrhea | url = | journal = International Journal of Dermatology | volume = 43 | issue = 1| pages = 1–5 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2004.01959.x | pmid = 14693013 }}
42. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Price WD, Lovell RA, McChesney DG |title=Naturally occurring toxins in feedstuffs: Center for Veterinary Medicine Perspective |journal=Journal of Animal Science |volume=71 |issue=9 |pages=2556–62 |date=September 1993 |pmid=8407668 |url=http://www.journalofanimalscience.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8407668}}
43. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Scudamore KA, Hetmanski MT, Nawaz S, Naylor J, Rainbird S |title=Determination of mycotoxins in pet foods sold for domestic pets and wild birds using linked-column immunoassay clean-up and HPLC |journal=Food Additives and Contaminants |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=175–86 |year=1997 |pmid=9102350 |doi=10.1080/02652039709374512}}
44. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Bueno DJ, Silva JO, Oliver G |title=Mycoflora in commercial pet foods |journal=Journal of Food Protection |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=741–3 |date=May 2001 |pmid=11348013 |url=http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/nlm?genre=article&issn=0362-028X&volume=64&issue=5&spage=741&aulast=Bueno}}
45. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Leung MC, Díaz-Llano G, Smith TK |title=Mycotoxins in pet food: a review on worldwide prevalence and preventative strategies |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=54 |issue=26 |pages=9623–35 |date=December 2006 |pmid=17177480 |doi=10.1021/jf062363}}
46. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Boermans HJ, Leung MC |title=Mycotoxins and the pet food industry: toxicological evidence and risk assessment |journal=International Journal of Food Microbiology |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=95–102 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17889389 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.063}}
47. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Campos SG, Cavaglieri LR, Fernández Juri MG |title=Mycobiota and aflatoxins in raw materials and pet food in Brazil |journal=Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition |volume=92 |issue=3 |pages=377–83 |date=June 2008 |pmid=18477320 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0396.2008.00809.x|display-authors=etal}}
48. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Böhm J, Koinig L, Razzazi-Fazeli E |title=Survey and risk assessment of the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, and aflatoxins in commercial dry dog food |journal=Mycotoxin Research |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=147–53 |date=August 2010 |pmid=23605379 |doi=10.1007/s12550-010-0049-4|display-authors=etal}}
49. ^{{cite news|last=DELL|first=MARYANNE|title=Worried about tainted jerky treats? Here's how to keep your pets safe|url=http://www.ocregister.com/articles/treats-533350-ingredients-says.html|newspaper=Orange County Register|date=October 27, 2013}}
50. ^{{cite web | url=http://petfoodtalk.com/dogfoodreviews/#finest-hour | title = Dog Food Reviews: Dog Food's Finest Hour | publisher=petfoodtalk.com}}
51. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{cite journal | last1 = Elsey | first1 = J. | last2 = Riepenhausen | first2 = J. | last3 = McKay | first3 = B. | last4 = Barton | first4 = G.W. | last5 = Willis | first5 = M. | year = 1997 | title = Modeling and Control of a Food Extrusion Process | url = | journal = Computers Chem Engng | volume = 21 | issue = 1–2| pages = S361–S366 | doi=10.1016/s0098-1354(97)00075-6}}
52. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²Pitchon, E. (1980). United States Patent No. 4225630. Flushing, New York:United States Patent Office.
53. ^Messonnier, S. (2001) Natural Health Bible for Dogs & Cats. New York: Three Rivers Press. {{ISBN|0-7615-2673-0}}
54. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶Baker, G.J., Bansal, A.K., Konieczka, J.L. and Kuntz, D.A. (1990). United States Patent No. 4895731. Chicago, Illinois:United States Patent Office.
55. ^¹²³⁴Bohart, G.S. (1934). United States Patent No. 1961681. Washington, D.C.:United States Patent Office.
56. ^{{cite news | url=http://www.ocregister.com/articles/treats-533350-ingredients-says.html | title=Worried about tainted jerky treats? | work=Orange County Register | date=28 October 2013}}
57. ^{{cite web|last=Taylor |first=Jessica |url=http://www.petfoodindustry.com/Default.aspx?pageid=5306&id=46871&terms=justfoodfordogs |title=Just Food for thought |publisher=Petfoodindustry.com |date=2013-09-26 |accessdate=2014-08-10}}
58. ^{{cite web|last=Taylor |first=Jessica |url=http://www.petfoodindustry.com/function.aspx |title=How to: Apply human food trends to petfood |publisher=Petfoodindustry.com |date=2013-09-26 |accessdate=2014-08-10}}
59. ^{{cite web|url=http://specialneedspets.org/animals/recipes/| title = Making Homemade dog food recipes}}
60. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.dogfoodproject.com/index.php?page=badingredients|title=The Dog Food Project - Ingredients to avoid|website=Dogfoodproject.com}}
61. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.wysong.net/pet-health-and-nutrition/the-pet-food-ingredient-game.php|title=The Pet Food Ingredient Game - Wysong|website=Wysong.net}}
62. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.homevet.com/petcare/foodbook.html|title=An excerpt from the book "Food Pets Die For"|website=Homevet.com}}
63. ^the Association of American Feed Control Officials {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117095239/http://www.aafco.org/Portals/0/Public/Q-AND-A-REGARDING-PETFOODREGS.PDF |date=January 17, 2009 }}
64. ^Canada Wraps Up BSE Investigation {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081127020446/http://www.avma.org/onlnews/javma/oct03/031001a.asp |date=November 27, 2008 }}
65. ^{{cite web|last=Trixston|first=Susan|title=Is it Feed or Food?|url=http://truthaboutpetfood.com/is-it-feed-or-food|publisher=Truth About Pet Food|date=2014-03-19}}
66. ^{{cite web|last=Chavez|first=Oscar|title=Food not Feed: Are the Ingredients in Pet "Food" Safe?|url=http://justfoodfordogs.com/food-not-feed-are-the-ingredients-in-pet-food-safe/|work=Blog Post|publisher=JustFoodForDogs LLC|accessdate=20 May 2014}}
67. ^{{cite web|title=Food Safety Around the World|url=http://safefoodinternational.org/local_global.pdf|publisher=Center for Science in the Public Interest|accessdate=15 March 2018}}
68. ^{{cite web|title=AFIA seeks comment from member companies on ingredient approvals|url=http://www.petfoodindustry.com/AFIA_seeks_comment_from_member_companies_on_ingredient_approvals.html|publisher=Petfood Industry|accessdate=15 March 2018}}
69. ^{{cite web | url=http://www.bhsah.com/?p=308 | title=Just Food for Dogs Visits BHSAH | publisher=Beverly Hills Small Animal Hospital| date=2017-04-25 }}
70. ^¹{{Cite journal|last=Schlesinger|first=Daniel P.|last2=Joffe|first2=Daniel J.|date=2011|title=Raw food diets in companion animals: A critical review|journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal|volume=52|issue=1|pages=50–54|issn=0008-5286|pmc=3003575|pmid=21461207|via=}}
71. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.petmd.com/dog/nutrition/high-pressure-processing-and-raw-pet-food-diets-what-you-need-know|title=High-Pressure Processing and Raw Pet Food Diets: What You Need to Know |website=Petmd.com|access-date=2017-11-27}}
72. ^¹{{Cite journal|last=Michel|first=Kathryn E.|title=Unconventional Diets for Dogs and Cats|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0195561606000805|journal=Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice|volume=36|issue=6|pages=1269–1281|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2006.08.003|pmid=17085234|year=2006}}
73. ^{{Cite journal|last=Laflamme, Dorthy|date=May 2005|title=Nutrition for Aging Cats and Dogs and the Importance of Body Condition|url=https://www-sciencedirect-com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/S0195561604001871|journal=Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=3|pages=713–742|via=Elsevier Science Direct|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.12.011|pmid=15833567}}
74. ^{{Cite journal|last=Curchill, J.A.|date=2015|title=Nutrition for senior dogs: New tricks for feeding old dogs|url=http://www.cliniciansbrief.com/sites/default/files/attachments/Nutrition%20for%20Senior%20Dogs.pdf|journal=Clinicians Brief|volume=|pages=|via=}}
75. ^{{Cite journal|last=Neil|first=Kirsten M.|last2=Caron|first2=John P.|last3=Orth|first3=Michael W.|title=The role of glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate in treatment for and prevention of osteoarthritis in animals|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|language=en|volume=226|issue=7|pages=1079–1088|doi=10.2460/javma.2005.226.1079|year=2005}}
76. ^{{Cite book|title=Canine and feline nutrition : a resource for companion animal professionals|date=2011|publisher=Mosby|others=Case, Linda P.|isbn=9780323066198|edition=3rd|location=Maryland Heights, Mo.|oclc=664112342}}
77. ^{{Cite web|url=https://flaxcouncil.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/FlaxFeed-Nutrition-Benefits-final.pdf|title=FLAXSEED: Nutrition Benefits for Dogs and Cats|last=Adolphe, Jennifer; Fitzpatrick, Kelley|date=|website=Flax Council of Canada|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}
78. ^{{Cite journal|last=Swanson, K.S., Grieshop, C.M., Flickinger, E.A., Bauer, L.L., Healy, HP., Dawson K.A., Merchen N.R. and Fahey G.G. Jr.|date=May 2002|title=Supplemental fructooligosaccharides and mannanoligosaccharides influence immune function, ileal and total tract nutrient digestibilities, microbial populations and concentrations of protein catabolites in the large bowel of dogs|url=http://jn.nutrition.org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/content/132/5/980.short|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=132|issue=5|pages=980–989|via=The Journal of Nutrition|doi=10.1093/jn/132.5.980|pmid=11983825}}
79. ^¹²{{Cite journal|last=Roudebush|first=Philip|last2=Zicker|first2=Steven C.|last3=Cotman|first3=Carl W.|last4=Milgram|first4=Norton W.|last5=Muggenburg|first5=Bruce A.|last6=Head|first6=Elizabeth|date=2005-09-01|title=Nutritional management of brain aging in dogs|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=227|issue=5|pages=722–728|doi=10.2460/javma.2005.227.722|issn=0003-1488}}
80. ^{{Cite journal|last=Straus M|date=November 2012|title=Plant oils: do you know which plant oils may help your dog, and which ones could cause problems?|url=http://go.galegroup.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/ps/i.do?&id=GALE%7CA308130839&v=2.1&u=guel77241&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&authCount=1|journal=Whole Dog Journal|volume=15|pages=16|via=}}
81. ^{{Cite journal|last=Watson, T.D.G.|date=|title=Diet and skin disease in dogs and cats|url=http://jn.nutrition.org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/content/128/12/2783S.full.pdf+html|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=128|pages=2783–2789|via=The Journal of Nutrition}}
82. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.skaervet.com/documents/Common%20Pet%20Food%20Ingredients.pdf|title=Common pet food ingredients|last=|first=|date=|website=Skaer Veterinary|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}
83. ^¹{{Cite journal|last=Wander, R.C., Hall J.A., Gradin, J.L., Shi-Hua, D. Jewell, D.E.|date=June 1997|title=The ratio of dietary (n-6) to (n-3) fatty acids influences immune system function, eicosanoid metabolism, Lipid peroxidation and vitamin E status in aged dogs|url=http://jn.nutrition.org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/content/127/6/1198|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=127|pages=1198–1205|via=The Journal of Nutrition}}
84. ^{{Cite journal|last=Kau|first=Andrew L.|last2=Ahern|first2=Philip P.|last3=Griffin|first3=Nicholas W.|last4=Goodman|first4=Andrew L.|last5=Gordon|first5=Jeffrey I.|date=2011-06-15|title=Human nutrition, the gut microbiome and the immune system|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/nature10213|journal=Nature|language=En|volume=474|issue=7351|pages=327–336|doi=10.1038/nature10213|pmid=21677749|issn=1476-4687|pmc=3298082}}
85. ^¹²³{{Cite web|url=http://www.aafco.org|title=The Association of American Feed Control Officials > Home|website=Aafco.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-12-05}}
86. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.fediaf.org/self-regulation/nutrition/|title=Nutrition|website=Fediaf.org|language=en-gb|access-date=2017-12-05}}
87. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸{{Cite book|url=http://site.ebrary.com/id/10494806|title=Canine and feline nutrition: a resource for companion animal professionals|last=Case|first=Linda P|date=2011|publisher=Mosby|isbn=9780323066198|location=Maryland Heights, Mo.|language=English}}
88. ^{{Cite journal|last=Hilton|first=J.W.|last2=Atkinson|first2=J.L.|date=January 1988|title=High Lipid and High Protein Dog Foods|journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal|volume=29|issue=1|pages=76–78|issn=0008-5286|pmc=1680747|pmid=17422957}}
89. ^{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256648197|title=NUTRIENT INTAKE IN ADULTS 50 YEARS AGE AND OLDER IN THE UNITED STATES|journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association|volume=103|pages=26|language=en|access-date=2017-11-29|doi=10.1016/S0002-8223(08)70041-5|year=2003|last1=Dehkordi|first1=N.|last2=Rao|first2=R.|last3=Sakhanokho|first3=H.|last4=Zipf|first4=A.}}
90. ^{{Cite journal|last=Sepowitz|first=John J.|last2=McClung|first2=Holly L.|last3=Berryman|first3=Claire E.|last4=Armstrong|first4=Nicholes J.|last5=Ferrando|first5=Arny A.|last6=Lieberman|first6=Harris R.|last7=McClung|first7=James P.|last8=Pasiakos|first8=Stefan M.|date=May 2016|title=Supplementing An Energy Adequate High Protein Diet With Additional Protein Is Not Necessary For Recovery Of Lean Body Mass After Short-term Starvation: 1609 Board #262 June 2, 800 AM - 930 AM|url=http://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/fulltext/2016/05001/Supplementing_An_Energy_Adequate_High_Protein_Diet.1328.aspx|journal=Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise|volume=48|issue=5S|pages=443|doi=10.1249/01.mss.0000486334.23548.c5|issn=0195-9131}}
91. ^{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=Mark D.|last2=Sen|first2=Ananda|last3=Gordon|first3=Paul M.|date=February 2011|title=Influence of resistance exercise on lean body mass in aging adults: a meta-analysis|journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise|volume=43|issue=2|pages=249–258|doi=10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181eb6265|issn=1530-0315|pmc=2995836|pmid=20543750}}
92. ^¹²{{Cite book|title=Mathematical Modelling in Animal Nutrition|last=J. France and E. Kebreab|publisher=CABI|year=2008|isbn=9781845933593|location=Canada|pages=}}
93. ^¹²{{Cite journal|last=Swanson|first=K. S.|date=2016-10-01|title=0226 Dietary manipulation of canine and feline gut microbiome.|url=https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/jas/abstracts/94/supplement5/107|journal=Journal of Animal Science|language=en|volume=94|issue=supplement5|doi=10.2527/jam2016-0226|issn=1525-3163|page=107}}
94. ^{{Cite journal|last=Nery|first=J.|last2=Goudez|first2=R.|last3=Biourge|first3=V.|last4=Tournier|first4=C.|last5=Leray|first5=V.|last6=Martin|first6=L.|last7=Thorin|first7=C.|last8=Nguyen|first8=P.|last9=Dumon|first9=H.|date=August 2012|title=Influence of dietary protein content and source on colonic fermentative activity in dogs differing in body size and digestive tolerance|journal=Journal of Animal Science|volume=90|issue=8|pages=2570–2580|doi=10.2527/jas.2011-4112|issn=1525-3163|pmid=22328724|url=https://iris.unito.it/bitstream/2318/94132/1/J%20ANIM%20SCI-2012-Nery-2570-80.pdf}}
95. ^{{Cite journal|last=Conlon|first=Michael A.|last2=Bird|first2=Anthony R.|date=2014-12-24|title=The Impact of Diet and Lifestyle on Gut Microbiota and Human Health|journal=Nutrients|volume=7|issue=1|pages=17–44|doi=10.3390/nu7010017|issn=2072-6643|pmc=4303825|pmid=25545101}}
96. ^¹{{Cite journal|last=Fahey|first=George C.|last2=Barry|first2=Kathleen A.|last3=Swanson|first3=Kelly S.|date=2008|title=Age-related changes in nutrient utilization by companion animals|journal=Annual Review of Nutrition|volume=28|pages=425–445|doi=10.1146/annurev.nutr.28.061807.155325|issn=0199-9885|pmid=18598137}}
97. ^{{Cite journal|last=Adkins|first=Y.|last2=Zicker|first2=S. C.|last3=Lepine|first3=A.|last4=Lönnerdal|first4=B.|date=April 1997|title=Changes in nutrient and protein composition of cat milk during lactation|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=58|issue=4|pages=370–375|issn=0002-9645|pmid=9099381}}
98. ^{{Cite journal|last=Oftedal|first=Olav T.|date=1984-05-01|title=Lactation in the Dog: Milk Composition and Intake by Puppies|url=http://jn.nutrition.org/content/114/5/803|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|language=en|volume=114|issue=5|pages=803–812|issn=0022-3166|pmid=6726450|doi=10.1093/jn/114.5.803}}
99. ^{{Cite journal|last=Ruby|first=Matthew B.|date=February 2012|title=Vegetarianism. A blossoming field of study|journal=Appetite|volume=58|issue=1|pages=141–150|doi=10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.019|issn=1095-8304|pmid=22001025}}
100. ^{{Cite journal|last=Sabaté|first=Joan|last2=Wien|first2=Michelle|date=April 2015|title=A perspective on vegetarian dietary patterns and risk of metabolic syndrome|journal=The British Journal of Nutrition|volume=113 Suppl 2|pages=S136–143|doi=10.1017/S0007114514004139|issn=1475-2662|pmid=26148917}}
101. ^¹²{{Cite journal|last=Knight|first=Andrew|last2=Leitsberger|first2=Madelaine|date=2016-09-21|title=Vegetarian versus Meat-Based Diets for Companion Animals|url=http://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/6/9/57|journal=Animals|language=en|volume=6|issue=9|pages=57|doi=10.3390/ani6090057|pmid=27657139|pmc=5035952}}
102. ^¹²³{{Cite journal|last=McEvoy|first=Claire T.|last2=Temple|first2=Norman|last3=Woodside|first3=Jayne V.|date=December 2012|title=Vegetarian diets, low-meat diets and health: a review|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/vegetarian-diets-lowmeat-diets-and-health-a-review/CFE7D0A7ADA80651A3DC03892287BABA|journal=Public Health Nutrition|volume=15|issue=12|pages=2287–2294|doi=10.1017/S1368980012000936|pmid=22717188|issn=1368-9800}}
103. ^Kienzle, E.; Engelhard, R. (2001). "A field study on the nutrition of vegetarian dogs and cats in Europe". Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practising Veterinarian. 23 (9A): 81.
104. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.vin.com/VINDBPub/SearchPB/Proceedings/PR05000/PR00001.htm|title=Alternative Feeding Practices|work=World Small Animal Veterinary Association|year=2001|accessdate=2008-02-24}}
105. ^{{cite web | url=http://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/safetyhealth/RecallsWithdrawals/ucm129932.htm | title=FDA Animal Safety Recalls}}
106. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.api4animals.org/facts.php?p=359&more=1 |title = Animal Protection Institute (API) |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081017172555/http://www.api4animals.org/facts.php?p=359&more=1 |archivedate = 2008-10-17 |df = }}
107. ^{{cite web| url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Jan06/dogs.dying.ssl.html| title = The Cornell Vet College}}
108. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/safetyhealth/recallswithdrawals/default.htm |title=Recalls & Withdrawals |publisher=Fda.gov |date= |accessdate=2014-08-10}}