“Oscar White Muscarella”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Oscar White Muscarella (born 1931) is an American archaeologist and former Senior Research Fellow at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where he worked for over 40 years before retiring in 2009. He specializes in the art and archaeology of the Ancient Near East, in particular Ancient Persia and Anatolia. Muscarella is an untiring opponent of the plundering of ancient sites and has earned a reputation as the conscience of the discipline. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1965.

Early life

Muscarella was born on March 26, 1931, in New York, New York (borough of Manhattan), as Oscar White to parents Oscar V. White, an elevator operator, and Anna Falkin.^[1] Oscar Sr. and Anna lived in the Bronx and were very poor. In 1936 Anna left Oscar White and abandoned Oscar Jr. and his brother Bobby to live with Salvatore “Sam” Muscarella, whom she later married in 1939. After living in an orphanage for a year, Oscar Jr. and Bobby went to live in Manhattan with Anna and Sam in 1937.

While living in Manhattan, Muscarella joined the Gramercy Boy's Club, and it was in the club’s library that he began to read voraciously. In junior high school he was a good student, skipping a semester, despite working many outside jobs. His teachers there encouraged him to take the tests to qualify for the elite Stuyvesant High School, where he was accepted.^[2] At Stuyvesant he joined the Archaeology Club. A Miss Jones, the Club's librarian (and according to Muscarella, "my first and best librarian"^[3]) was one of several people to whom he dedicated his 2000 book, The Lie Became Great: The Forgery of Ancient Near Eastern Cultures. He began college at New York University, but transferred in his second year to the City College of New York, working during the day. After six years in the Evening Session, he graduated in 1955 with a degree in History.^[4]

Career

In the summer of 1953, Muscarella went on his first excavation at Mesa Verde, a Pueblo Indian site in Colorado, which he followed with work on another excavation at Swan Creek, South Dakota. While at Swan Creek, he received a letter of acceptance from the University of Pennsylvania for graduate study in the Department of Classical Archaeology, and he enrolled. He joined the University of Pennsylvania team at the site of Gordion, Turkey, in 1957, the year he married Grace Freed, a fellow graduate student (in Latin) who later became an archaeological illustrator. In 1958-1959, he was a Fulbright Scholar at the American School of Classical Studies, Athens. Muscarella returned to work at Gordion in 1959 and 1963, and excavated in Iran at Hasanlu in 1960, 1962, and 1964; at Agrab Tepe in 1964; and at Ziwiye in 1964. In 1964 he joined the Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. He received a Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1965, writing his dissertation on Phrygian fibulae from Gordion. ^[5]

At the Metropolitan Museum, Muscarella was Assistant Curator (1964-1969), Associate Curator (1969-1978), and then Senior Research Fellow, retiring in 2009. He continued to work at Hasanlu, as well as other Iranian sites including Dinkha Tepe, Nush-i Jan, and Sé Girdan; he also discovered what he believed to be the important Urartian city of Qalatgah. He was appointed acting head of the department in late 1970 and early 1971, outspoken about the museum’s acquisitions policies with respect to antiquities in light of the recent UNESCO convention, which opened for signature in November 1970. On August 30, 1972, he received his first notice of termination from the museum. This began a years-long legal battle between Muscarella and The Met concerning his wrongful termination, which was eventually resolved with his full reinstatement as Senior Research Fellow in 1978. ^[6]

Fight against the antiquities trade

Muscarella sees the collecting of illegal antiquities by individuals and institutions as greatly harmful to archaeology. The illegal antiquities trade increases the value for and demand of important artifacts, which creates incentives for people to hastily plunder sites and encourages forgeries. Since these people have no incentive to take the care that professional archaeologists would, they may end up destroying a great many of the site's artifacts. Large parts of cultural history, it is claimed, have been destroyed in this manner.{{citation needed|date=February 2019}} According to Muscarella, museums have been complicit in accepting "bazaar archeology,” and have fabricated proveniences for objects that have been illegally excavated or forged. Curators are often not encouraged address awkward questions about objects in their collections, or those that are acquired, donated or loaned for exhibition.

Muscarella wrote in 1977 on the Ziwiye hoard, supposedly found in 1947 in Iranian Kurdistan.{{citation needed|date=February 2019}} He points out that none of the items were excavated under archaeological conditions, but passed through the hands of dealers. He concludes that "there are no objective sources of information that any of the attributed objects actually were found at Ziwiye, although it is probable that some were", and that “the objects have no historical and archaeological value as a group".^[7]

Forgeries

Muscarella has gained some notoriety in his attempts to unmask certain important artifacts as forgeries, including some in the collection of the Metropolitan. His book The Lie Became Great. The Forgery of Ancient Near Eastern Cultures (2000) was a blistering attack, which included a long catalogue of specific objects in museums, private collections, and the art market which he claims are modern forgeries. He even assessed whole categories of objects to be forgeries.^[8] The book was well-received by reviewers in academic journals, several of whom concluded that it should be "required" or "compulsory" reading for those in the field.^[9]

In 2003 he was reported in The Times in London, in a story by Peter Watson, to have "labelled as mostly fake" the Oxus Treasure in the British Museum.^[10] As a result, he was attacked in a letter to The Times by the Director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Philippe de Montebello, who said Muscarella, as a long-standing critic of museums' tolerance and even encouragement of the trade in illegal antiquities, only remained there because of the "exigencies of academic tenure.”{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}

Montebello was himself criticized for suppressing debate.^[11] In an article on the Oxus Treasure published in 2003, Muscarella fiercely attacked the assumed unity of the treasure and the narratives of its provenience, and questions the authenticity of some of the votive plaques.^[12]

References

Interviews

Footnotes

1. ^Elizabeth Simpson, ed., The Adventure of the Illustrious Scholar: Papers Presented to Oscar White Muscarella (Leiden: Brill, 2018), 1.
2. ^Simpson, The Adventure of the Illustrious Scholar, 1-2
3. ^Oscar White Muscarella, The Lie Became Great: The Forgery of Ancient Near Eastern Cultures (Groningen: Styx, 2000), iii.
4. ^Simpson, The Adventure of the Illustrious Scholar, 3.
5. ^ Simpson, The Adventure of the Illustrious Scholar, 4-5.
6. ^Simpson, The Adventure of the Illustrious Scholar, 6-14.
7. ^Oscar White Muscarella, "'Ziwiye' and Ziwiye: The Forgery of Provenience," Journal of Field Archaeology 4 (1979): 197; reprint, Oscar White Muscarella, Archaeology, Artifacts, and Antiquities of the Ancient Near East: Sites, Cultures, and Proveniences (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 955.
8. ^James Gardner, "Met Fakes Unearthed?" The New York Post (New York), February 1, 2001. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930154851/http://www.museum-security.org/01/025.html |date=2007-09-30 }}
9. ^See: David W. J. Gill, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40026086 review of The Lie Became Great: The Forgery of Ancient Near Eastern Cultures], American Journal of Archaeology 107, no. 2 (April 2003): 285-286. Gill asserts, "The Lie should be compulsory reading for any archaeologist who has ever had to deal with material which has not been derived from an archaeological excavation-"; see also: Lucille A. Roussin, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250912 Journal of Field Archaeology], vol. 29, no. 3/4 (2002), 494-496, and Morag M. Kersel, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4150075 Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research], no. 335 (August 2004), 101-103.
10. ^Peter Watson, "All that glisters isn't old", The Times, December 19, 2003.
11. ^"The Metropolitan and the Oxus Treasure", ArtWatch, January 5, 2004; see also: Philippe de Montebello, "The Oxus Treasure: From the Director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art," The Times, December 26, 2003. Montebello writes in the opening paragraph of his letter, "I am frankly astonished by the unofficial comments about the Oxus Treasure at the British Museum from someone you call 'a distinguished archaeologist' at the Metropolitan, but who is someone whom we have marginalized within our museum."
12. ^Oscar White Muscarella, Archaeology, Artifacts, and Antiquities of the Ancient Near East: Sites, Cultures, and Proveniences (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 969. {{ISBN|9004236694}}, 9789004236691, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5AOw0GB0zHsC&dq google books]