| 释义 |
- Core areas of philosophy
- Fields of philosophy Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Other
- History of philosophy Ancient philosophy Western philosophy Eastern philosophy Contemporary philosophy
- Philosophical theories Major traditions in philosophy Philosophical movements Ancient Medieval Modern
- Philosophies by branch Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind Philosophy of religion Religious philosophy Philosophy of science
- Philosophical literature Reference works
- Philosophers
- See also
- References
- External links
{{Short description|1=Overview of and topical guide to philosophy}}The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to philosophy: Philosophy – study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.[1][2] It is distinguished from other ways of addressing fundamental questions (such as mysticism, myth, or the arts) by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument.[3] The word "Philosophy" comes from the Greek philosophia (φιλοσοφία), which literally means "love of wisdom".[4][5][6]{{TOC Limit|3}}Core areas of philosophyThe core areas of philosophy are: - Aesthetics – study of the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and the creation of personal kinds of truth
- Epistemology – study of the nature and scope of knowledge and belief
- Ethics – study of the right, the good, and the valuable. Includes study of applied ethics
- Logic – study of good reasoning, by examining the validity of arguments and documenting their fallacies
- Metaphysics – study of the state of being and the nature of reality
Fields of philosophy The branches of philosophy are divided into the many fields of philosophy: AestheticsAesthetics is study of the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and the creation of personal kinds of truth - Applied aesthetics – application of the philosophy of aesthetics to art and culture
EpistemologyEpistemology is the study of knowledge. How is knowledge different from belief? What can we know? How does knowledge arise? Can there be objective knowledge? EthicsEthics – study of the right, the good, and the valuable - Applied ethics – philosophical examination, from a moral standpoint, of particular issues in private and public life that are matters of moral judgment. It is thus the attempts to use philosophical methods to identify the morally correct course of action in various fields of human life.
- Decision ethics – ethical theories and ethical decision processes
- Environmental ethics – studies ethical issues concerning the non-human world. It exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including environmental law, environmental sociology, ecotheology, ecological economics, ecology and environmental geography.
- Professional ethics – ethics to improve professionalism
- Computer ethics – deals with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct
- Ethics of artificial intelligence – specific to robots and other artificially intelligent beings.
- Research ethics – application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving research, including scientific research.
- Bioethics – study of the typically controversial ethical issues emerging from new situations and possibilities brought about by advances in biology and medicine.
- Medical ethics – ethics to improve basic health needs of humans
- Business ethics – individual based morals to improve ethics in a business environment
- Organizational ethics – ethics among organizations
- Social ethics – ethics among nations and as one global unit
- Descriptive ethics – study of people's beliefs about morality
- Normative ethics – study of ethical theories that prescribe how people ought to act
- Metaethics – branch of ethics that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments
LogicLogic – the systematic study of the form of valid inference and reason - Propositional logic
- Predicate logic
- Modal logic
MetaphysicsMetaphysics – traditional branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world that encompasses it. Metaphysics attempts to answer two basic questions in the broadest possible terms: "What is ultimately there?" and, "What is it like?" - Ontology – philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence, or reality, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations.
- Philosophy of mind – studies the nature of the mind, mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness, and their relationship to the physical body, particularly the brain.
- Philosophy of space and time – branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology, epistemology, and character of space and time.
- Philosophy of action – theories about the processes causing willful human bodily movements of a more or less complex kind. This area of thought has attracted the strong interest of philosophers ever since Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics (Third Book).
Other- Meta-philosophy
- Philosophy of education
- Philosophy of history
- Philosophy of language
- Philosophy of law
- Philosophy of mathematics
- Philosophy of religion
- Philosophy of science
- Political philosophy
- Environmental philosophy
History of philosophyHistory of philosophy – study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. Issues specifically related to history of philosophy might include (but are not limited to): How can changes in philosophy be accounted for historically? What drives the development of thought in its historical context? To what degree can philosophical texts from prior historical eras be understood even today? Ancient philosophy{{Main|Ancient philosophy|}}- Sophism
- Epicureanism
- Platonism
- Stoicism
Western philosophyWestern philosophy- Medieval philosophy (Scholasticism)
- Renaissance philosophy
- Modern philosophy
Eastern philosophyEastern philosophy- Islamic philosophy
- Indian philosophy
- Chinese philosophy
Contemporary philosophyContemporary philosophy- Analytic philosophy
- Continental philosophy
Philosophical theories {{Main|List of philosophies|Glossary of philosophy}} Major traditions in philosophy - Analytic philosophy
- Continental philosophy
- Eastern philosophy
Philosophical movements Philosophical movement{{col-begin}}{{col-2}} Ancient - Confucianism
- Platonic realism
- Aristotelianism
- Pythagoreanism
- Pyrrhonian skepticism
- Epicureanism (hedonism)
- Stoicism
- Cynicism
Medieval- Neo-Confucianism
- Neoplatonism
- Thomism
- Scotism
- Scholasticism
{{col-2}}Modern- Empiricism
- Existentialism
- German idealism
- Logicism
- Logical Positivism
- Marxism
- Phenomenology
- Poststructuralism
- Pragmatism
- Rationalism
- Structuralism
- Utilitarianism
{{col-end}} Philosophies by branch Aesthetics {{Further|List of art movements}}Aesthetics- Symbolism
- Romanticism
- Historicism
- Classicism
- Modernism
- Postmodernism
- Psychoanalytic theory
Epistemology Epistemology{{Div col}}- Coherentism
- Constructivist epistemology
- Contextualism
- Embodied cognition
- Empiricism
- Fallibilism
- Foundationalism
- Holism
- Infinitism
- Innatism
- Internalism and externalism
- Naïve realism
- Naturalized epistemology
- Objectivist epistemology
- Phenomenalism
- Positivism
- Reductionism
- Reliabilism
- Representative realism
- Rationalism
- Situated cognition
- Skepticism
- Theory of Forms
- Transcendental idealism
- Uniformitarianism
{{Div col end}} Ethics Ethics- Consequentialism
- Deontology
- Virtue ethics
- Moral realism
- Moral relativism
- Error theory
- Non-cognitivism
- Ethical egoism
- Cultural relativism
- Evolutionary ethics
- Evolution of morality
Logic Logic- Classical logic
- Intermediate logic
- Intuitionistic logic
- Minimal logic
- Relevant logic
- Affine logic
- Linear logic
- Ordered logic
- Dialetheism
Metaphysics Metaphysics{{Div col}}- Anti-realism
- Cartesian dualism
- Free will
- Materialism
- Meaning of life
- Idealism
- Existentialism
- Essentialism
- Libertarianism
- Determinism
- Naturalism
- Monism
- Platonic idealism
- Hindu idealism
- Phenomenalism
- Nihilism
- Realism
- Physicalism
- MOQ
- Relativism
- Scientific realism
- Solipsism
- Subjectivism
- Substance theory
- Type theory
- Emergentism
- Emanationism
{{Div col end}} Political philosophy Political philosophy- Anarchism
- Authoritarianism
- Conservatism
- Liberalism
- Libertarianism
- Social democracy
- Socialism
Philosophy of language Philosophy of language{{Div col}}- Causal theory of reference
- Contrast theory of meaning
- Contrastivism
- Conventionalism
- Cratylism
- Deconstruction
- Descriptivist theory of names
- Direct reference theory
- Dramatism
- Expressivism
- Linguistic determinism
- Logical atomism
- Logical positivism
- Mediated reference theory
- Nominalism
- Non-cognitivism
- Phallogocentrism
- Quietism
- Relevance theory
- Semantic externalism
- Semantic holism
- Structuralism
- Supposition theory
- Symbiosism
- Theological noncognitivism
- Theory of descriptions
- Verification theory
{{Div col end}} Philosophy of mind Philosophy of mind{{Div col}}- Behaviourism
- Biological naturalism
- Consciousness
- Disjunctivism
- Dualism
- Eliminative materialism
- Emergent materialism
- Enactivism
- Epiphenomenalism
- Functionalism
- Identity theory
- Idealism
- Interactionism
- Materialism
- Monism
- Neutral monism
- Panpsychism
- Phenomenalism
- Phenomenology
- Physicalism
- Property dualism
- Representational theory of mind
- Sense datum theory
- Solipsism
- Substance dualism
- Qualia theory
{{Div col end}} Philosophy of religion Philosophy of religion{{Div col}}- Theories of religion
- Acosmism
- Agnosticism
- Animism
- Antireligion
- Atheism
- Dharmism
- Deism
- Divine command theory
- Dualistic cosmology
- Esotericism
- Exclusivism
- Existentialism
- Christian
- Agnostic
- Atheist
- Feminist theology
- Fideism
- Fundamentalism
- Gnosticism
- Henotheism
- Humanism
- Religious
- Secular
- Christian
- Inclusivism
- Monism
- Monotheism
- Mysticism
- Naturalism
- Metaphysical
- Religious
- Humanistic
- New Age
- Nondualism
- Nontheism
- Pandeism
- Pantheism
- Perennialism
- Polytheism
- Process theology
- Spiritualism
- Shamanism
- Taoic
- Theism
- Transcendentalism
{{Div col end}} Religious philosophy - Buddhist philosophy
- Christian philosophy
- Hindu philosophy
- Islamic philosophy
- Jain philosophy
- Jewish philosophy
Philosophy of science Philosophy of science{{Div col}}- Confirmation holism
- Coherentism
- Contextualism
- Conventionalism
- Deductive-nomological model
- Determinism
- Empiricism
- Fallibilism
- Foundationalism
- Hypothetico-deductive model
- Infinitism
- Instrumentalism
- Philosophy of artificial intelligence
- Positivism
- Pragmatism
- Rationalism
- Received view of theories
- Reductionism
- Semantic view of theories
- Scientific realism
- Scientism
- Scientific anti-realism
- Skepticism
- Uniformitarianism
- Vitalism
{{Div col end}} Philosophical literature- Blackwell Companion to Philosophy
- A History of Western Philosophy by Bertrand Russell
- A History of Philosophy by Frederick Copleston
Reference works - Encyclopedia of Philosophy – one of the major English encyclopedias of philosophy. The second edition, edited by Donald M. Borchert, was published in ten volumes in 2006 by Thomson Gale. Volumes 1–9 contain alphabetically ordered articles.
- Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy – free online encyclopedia on philosophical topics and philosophers founded by James Fieser in 1995. The current general editors are James Fieser (Professor of Philosophy at the University of Tennessee at Martin) and Bradley Dowden (Professor of Philosophy at California State University, Sacramento). The staff also includes numerous area editors as well as volunteers.
- Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy – encyclopedia of philosophy edited by Edward Craig that was first published by Routledge in 1998 ({{ISBN|978-0415073103}}). Originally published in both 10 volumes of print and as a CD-ROM, in 2002 it was made available online on a subscription basis. The online version is regularly updated with new articles and revisions to existing articles. It has 1,300 contributors providing over 2,000 scholarly articles.
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – combines an online encyclopedia of philosophy with peer reviewed publication of original papers in philosophy, freely-accessible to internet users. Each entry is written and maintained by an expert in the field, including professors from many academic institutions worldwide.
PhilosophersLists of philosophers- Timeline of Western philosophers
- Timeline of Eastern philosophers
See also- {{Portal-inline|size=tiny|Philosophy}}
- Outline of philosophy of artificial intelligence
- List of important publications in philosophy
- Index of philosophy
- Index of philosophy of science articles
- Unsolved problems in philosophy
References1. ^Jenny Teichmann and Katherine C. Evans, Philosophy: A Beginner's Guide (Blackwell Publishing, 1999), p. 1: "Philosophy is a study of problems which are ultimate, abstract and very general. These problems are concerned with the nature of existence, knowledge, morality, reason and human purpose."
2. ^A.C. Grayling, Philosophy 1: A Guide through the Subject (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 1: "The aim of philosophical inquiry is to gain insight into questions about knowledge, truth, reason, reality, meaning, mind, and value."
3. ^Anthony Quinton, in T. Honderich (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 666: "Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value). Each of the three elements in this list has a non-philosophical counterpart, from which it is distinguished by its explicitly rational and critical way of proceeding and by its systematic nature. Everyone has some general conception of the nature of the world in which they live and of their place in it. Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole. Everyone has occasion to doubt and question beliefs, their own or those of others, with more or less success and without any theory of what they are doing. Epistemology seeks by argument to make explicit the rules of correct belief formation. Everyone governs their conduct by directing it to desired or valued ends. Ethics, or moral philosophy, in its most inclusive sense, seeks to articulate, in rationally systematic form, the rules or principles involved."
4. ^Philosophia, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
5. ^Online Etymology Dictionary
6. ^The definition of philosophy is: "1.orig., love of, or the search for, wisdom or knowledge 2.theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe". {{cite book|title=Webster's New World Dictionary|edition=Second College}}
External links{{Sisterlinks|Philosophy}}- Taxonomy of Philosophy – topic outline developed by David Chalmers as the category structure for the table of contents of the PhilPapers academic directory.
- PhilPapers – comprehensive directory of online philosophical articles and books.
- Dictionary of Philosophical Terms and Names
- Guide to Philosophy on the Internet
- The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- The Ism Book
- Introducing Philosophy Series. By Paul Newall (for beginners)
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20070203102753/http://www.db.dk/jni/lifeboat/Concepts/Position.htm Philosophical positions] (philosophy, movement, school, theory, etc.)
- The Problems of Philosophy, by Bertrand Russell (links provided to full text)
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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