“Parnassius”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Parnassius is a genus of northern circumpolar and montane (alpine and Himalayan) butterflies usually known as Apollos or snow Apollos. They can vary in colour and form significantly based on their altitude. They also show an adaptation to high altitudes called altitudinal melanism. They show dark bodies and darkened colouration at the wingbase which helps them warm faster using the sun.

Although classified under the swallowtail butterfly family, none of the Parnassius species possesses tails.

The larvae feed on species of plants belonging to the Papaveraceae and Crassulaceae families, and like the other swallowtail butterfly larvae, possess an osmeterium.^[1] Unlike most butterflies that have exposed pupae, they pupate inside a loose silken cocoon.

Identification and ecology

The phylogeny of the group is still under study using molecular techniques. The exact number of species within the genus is disputed and numbers range from 38 to 47.^[3]

The Parnassius butterflies also have a peculiar reproductive strategy in that the male has special accessory glands that produce a mating plug that seals the female genitalia after mating. This is believed to ensure the success of the male and to prevent other males from mating and avoids sperm competition.^[4]

Butterflies of this genus have been widely used models to study metapopulations, population genetics and gene flow. Their patchy distribution and restricted migration makes them vulnerable to the effects of genetic drift and considerable colour variations can exist in individuals from different regions.^[5]^[6]

Species

Synonymy

Evolutionary relationships

A molecular phylogenetic study from 2008 suggests firstly that Baronia brevicornis Salvin 1893, rather than belonging to an outgroup Baroniinae belongs to Parnassiini, together with Hypermnestra and Parnassius. Secondly that the earliest split within the genus Parnassius is between subgenus Parnassius (the 'apollo' group, whose caterpillars feed on Crassulaceae, exceptionally Saxifragaceae) and the ancestor of the remaining seven subgenera. The existence of the subgenera is confirmed by molecular phylogenies. Six of the other subgenera have Fumariaceae as the larval food plant, while the larvae of the remaining genus Kreizbergia feed on Scrophulariaceae^[8]

Important collections

References

1. ^Katoh T, Chichvarkhin A, Yagi T,Omoto K. 2005 Phylogeny and evolution of butterflies of the genus Parnassius: inferences from mitochondrial 16S and ND1 sequences. Zoolog Sci.22(3):343-51 PDF
2. ^Ackery PR (1975) A guide to the genera and species of Parnassiinae (Lepidoptera:Papilionidae). Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Ent.) 31, 4 [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/19631#page/112/mode/2up pdf]
3. ^Nazari, Vazrick. 2006. Parnassius Latreille, 1804. Version 07 July 2006 (under construction). in The Tree of Life Web Project, shows Cladogram
4. ^Ehrlich, A. H. and P. R. Ehrlich. 1978. Reproductive strategies in the butterflies: I. Mating frequency, plugging, and egg number. J. Kansas Entomol. Soc. 51: 666-697.
5. ^Dechaine,Eric G. , Andrew P. Martin. 2004. Historic Cycles Of Fragmentation And Expansion In Parnassius smintheus (Papilionidae) Inferred Using Mitochondrial DNA. Evolution, 58(1):113–127
6. ^Keyghobadi, N., Roland, J. and Strobeck, C. 1999. Influence of landscape on the population genetic structure of the alpine butterfly Parnassius smintheus (Papilionidae). Molecular Ecology 8: 1481–1495.
7. ^Nazari, V., Zakharov, E.V., and Sperling, F.A.H., 2007. Phylogeny, historical biogeography, and taxonomic ranking of Parnassiinae (Lepidoptera, Papilionidae) based on morphology and seven genes. Molecular phylogenetics and Evolution, 42: 131-156. pdf {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606231126/http://www.uoguelph.ca/~vnazari/Nazari_et_al_2006_MP_E.pdf |date=June 6, 2011 }}
8. ^F Michel, C Rebourg, E Cosson, H Descimon, 2008 Molecular phylogeny of Parnassiinae butterfl ies (Lepidoptera:Papilionidae) based on the sequences of four mitochondrial DNA segmentsAnn.soc.entomol.Fr.(n.s),2008,44(1):1-36.