词条 | Pollution prevention |
释义 |
BackgroundSignificancePollution prevention is any action that reduces the amount of contaminants released into the environment. Implementation of P2 processes reduces the severity and/or number of hazards posed to both public health and the environment. P2 preserves natural resources and can also have significant financial benefits in large scale processes.[3] If companies produce less waste, they do not have to worry about proper disposal. Thus, P2 is also a proactive measure to reduce costs of waste disposal and elimination.[2] SourcesShipping ports are a significant source of pollution due to the heavy cargo traffic that these areas receive. The impact of these ships is quite widespread, affecting coastal communities and ecosystems across the globe. Most major shipping ports are located near environmentally sensitive estuaries. These areas are particularly impacted by high levels of diesel exhaust, particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and sulfur oxides. The solution for reducing port-related pollution is multi-fold, encompassing attainable alternatives and long-term reduction goals. Examples of simple steps include a restriction on engine idling for ships in the port and the use of cleaner grade diesel fuels. Some more expensive measures can be taken to mitigate the pollution of ships. Replacing older model ships with ships containing new engines allows the ships to meet modern emission standards. Exhaust systems can also be retrofitted in order to reduce exhaust emissions. Looking ahead into the future, there are a few technologies being developed. For example, plugging ships into “shore-side” power sources may eliminate the need for idling engines. Additionally, various sources of alternative fuel are being developed, the most significant of which is a fuel cell unit.[4]Due to increased trade, the emissions from ships are expected to become the second largest source of diesel particulate matter by 2020. One approach to reduction as set forth by the International Forum on Globalization (IFG) is to increase the amount of local trading, thereby reducing the number of miles that ships have to travel. Another approach regards the strategic placement of ports close to land transportation infrastructure (i.e. roads and railroads). Again, this reduces the number of miles that vehicles have to travel between the initial and final destinations. Railroads that reach all the way to ports are a significant way to produce less toxic pollutants, as this eliminates the need for less-efficient trucks to transport the goods from the coastal port to the inland railroad infrastructure.[4] Health HazardsP2 strategies can mitigate many health hazards associated with pollution. Long-term exposure to certain pollutants can cause cancer, heart disease, asthma, birth defects, and premature death.[4] Additionally, pollution of bodies of water can be detrimental to biodiversity. U.S. LegislationPollution Prevention Act of 1990To promote pollution prevention, the United States Congress passed the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990. Congress declared that pollution should be prevented and reduced wherever possible; in addition, any waste that must be released into the environment must be done in a responsible, environmentally-conscious manner. The law requires the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to:
In order to enforce the points outlined in the Act, EPA is directed to present a report to Congress biennially. The act requires that companies fill out a toxic chemical release form allowing EPA to collect information on the levels of pollution released into the environment.[2] Clean Air ActThe Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 provided many P2 strategies, including governmental intervention, research and development programs, guidelines for efficient technologies, reduction of vehicle emissions, and a suggested Congressional status report.[2] 2010-2014 Pollution Prevention Program Strategic PlanThe EPA 2010-2014 Pollution Prevention Program Strategic Plan introduced a number of ways to reduce harmful industrial outputs (i.e. greenhouse gases, hazardous materials) while conserving natural resources.[5] Production techniquesAs an environmental management strategy, P2 shares many attributes with cleaner production, a term used more commonly outside the United States. Pollution prevention encompasses more specialized sub-disciplines including green chemistry and green design (also known as environmentally conscious design). Pollution Prevention in Industrial ProcessesThe possibilities of P2 strategies are still being implemented at the corporate level, but benefits are already being realized by many companies. Recently, the view of P2 in industrial businesses has shifted from one of necessity to one of strategic advantage. If companies invest in P2 methods early in their development, they realize greater gains not too far down the road.[1] Additionally, if companies do not produce waste, they do not have to worry about properly disposing of it. Thus, P2 is a proactive measure taken to reduce costs in the long run that would have been dedicated to disposal and elimination of waste.[2] There are two main ways to reduce waste through P2: increased efficiency and technology improvements. Waste reduction at the source implies the same amount of input raw materials with less waste and more output of the product. Technology improvements imply changes to the production process that reduce the amount of output waste, such as an improved recycling process. Companies are moving past simply complying with the minimum environmental requirements, and they are taking a more strategic, forward-thinking stance on tackling the issue. One strategy is “in-process recycling.” Though it is not the most efficient form of “reduction at the source,” recycling is very profitable due to its ease of process. By engaging in recycling practices, industries not only cut down on the amount of material discarded as environmentally-hazardous waste, but they also increase profitability by reducing the amount of raw material purchased. The most widespread strategy is “reduction at the source,” which is the idea that byproducts of production can be reduced through efficient and careful use of natural resources. This method reduces the amount of dangerous pollutants present in waste before the waste is released. In turn, this creates a safer environment free of hazardous waste. This idea ties strongly into the benefits to corporations of investing in newer, more efficient technology.[1] Pollution Prevention StrategiesP2 Task ForceIn order to reduce costs of P2 techniques, many officials are turning to pollution elimination strategies, thereby eliminating any need for end-of-pipe solutions. A task force was created by the EPA in order to directly target reduction strategies. The P2 program task force has 5 main goals:
Voluntary ApproachVoluntary approaches to P2 are on the rise. Governmental organization often collaborate with businesses and regulatory agencies to create a structure of guidelines. There are four types of voluntary approach programs: public voluntary programs, negotiated agreements, unilateral commitments, and private agreements. Public voluntary agreements are the least restrictive. Environmental authorities collaborate and create specific guidelines. Companies are then invited to follow these procedures on a strictly voluntary basis. Negotiated agreements are created through collaboration between public authorities and industry authorities. The agreement establishes bargains that are beneficial to the industry. Unilateral commitments are established by industry authorities alone, and the guidelines they set are self-regulated. Private agreements are established between “polluters” and other affected parties. The regulations set forth create a compromise regarding a variety of pollution regulation strategies. The United States mainly follows the end-of-pipe prevention strategy. However, US President Richard Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970, and one of its principal missions was to regulate pollution. EPA’s implementation of policies is almost entirely voluntary.[7] There are a few keys to a successful voluntary approach. First, the program needs a dependable source of funding (from the government, usually). The program also needs a dynamic relationship with the targeted industries. This creates a base of trust between all involved in the agreement. In terms of regulation, the program should be monitored by a reliable source. In order to assure that the program will establish itself long term, there should be visible benefits to the participants and obvious results to the greater community. The long-term establishment of the program also comes from setting attainable goals to measure progress.[7] Governmental ApproachEPA has published waste minimization guidelines that comprise 5 major steps:
This framework mainly benefits smaller facilities.[6] Waste Reduction ApproachThe Waste Reduction Algorithm (WRA) is used to quantitatively describe the benefits of different P2 strategies based on each unique facility. The WRA tracks pollutants through the entire production process in order to obtain accurate measurements.[6] Industrial EffortsBy maximizing P2 opportunities, some companies choose to redesign their entire industrial process. Managers focus more on what enters and moves through the entire process, instead of only focusing on the output. Overall, the P2 strategies that financially benefit companies are the most likely to be implemented. However, since P2 has only recently been realized as a cost benefit, many corporations have not adopted significant measures to realize the potential gain.[8] Potential BenefitsPollution prevention can also be viewed as a form of environmental entrepreneurship, as companies are increasingly concerned with the cost benefits of reducing the amount of waste created. For example, 3M has accrued a savings of over $750 million since 1973 due to their implementation of P2 incentives. If implemented correctly, P2 strategies can result in an increase in yield, a commonly sought after result of industrial processes. Pollution prevention can also reduce the cost of waste removal because of the reduces amount of waste to remove. By preventing the amount of pollution released, companies can avoid some of the liability costs imposed when large amounts of pollution are released and contaminate the land on which the facility is located.[8] Individual EffortsAccording to EPA, there are some everyday steps that can be taken to prevent pollution:
Additional examples of P2 include using energy efficient machinery, developing clean-burning fuel, reducing the amount of chemicals released into water sources, creating a production process that results in a reduced amount of waste, and utilizing water conservation techniques.[3] See also{{portal|Sustainable development|Environment|Ecology|Energy}}{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
References1. ^1 2 {{Cite journal|date=2005-05-01|title=Cleaner production and profitability: analysis of 134 industrial pollution prevention (P2) project reports |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652604000071 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=13 |issue=6|pages=593–605|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2003.12.025|issn=0959-6526|last1=Cagno |first1=Enrico |last2=Trucco |first2=Paolo |last3=Tardini |first3=Lorenzo }} 2. ^1 2 3 4 {{Cite journal |last=Freeman |first=Harry |last2=Harten |first2=Teresa |last3=Springer |first3=Johnny|last4=Randall|first4=Paul|last5=Curran|first5=Mary Ann|last6=Stone|first6=Kenneth|date=1992|title=Industrial Pollution Prevention! A Critical Review|journal=Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=618–656 |doi=10.1080/10473289.1992.10467016|issn=1047-3289|citeseerx=10.1.1.399.695 }} 3. ^1 2 {{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/p2/learn-about-pollution-prevention |title=Learn About Pollution Prevention |publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |location=Washington, DC |access-date=2018-11-21|date=2013-06-04 }} 4. ^1 2 {{Cite journal |date=2004-10-01 |title=Pollution prevention at ports: clearing the air |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195925504000745 |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |volume=24 |issue=7–8 |pages=749–774 |doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2004.06.005 |issn=0195-9255|last1=Bailey |first1=Diane |last2=Solomon |first2=Gina }} 5. ^{{Cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/p2/pollution-prevention-law-and-policies |title=Pollution Prevention Law and Policies |publisher=EPA |access-date=2018-11-21|date=2014-09-22 }} 6. ^1 2 {{Cite journal |date=2008-01-15 |title=Sustainable development of process facilities: State-of-the-art review of pollution prevention frameworks |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030438940701237X |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |volume=150 |issue=1 |pages=4–20 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.08.062 |pmid=17923292 |issn=0304-3894|last1=Hossain |first1=Khandoker A. |last2=Khan |first2=Faisal I. |last3=Hawboldt |first3=Kelly }} 7. ^1 {{Cite journal |date=2011-03-01 |title=A review of international practice in the design of voluntary Pollution Prevention Programs |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652610001150 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=542–551 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.03.015 |issn=0959-6526|last1=Chittock |first1=Donald G. |last2=Hughey |first2=Kenneth F.D. }} 8. ^1 {{Cite journal |last=Lober |first=Douglas J. |date=1998 |title=Pollution prevention as corporate entrepreneurship |journal=Journal of Organizational Change Management |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=26–37 |doi=10.1108/09534819810369554 |issn=0953-4814}} External links{{Prone to spam|date=February 2015}}{{Z148}}{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
3 : Pollution|Industrial ecology|Prevention |
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